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<p><strong>Misoprostol</strong> is a drug that is FDA-approved in the United States for the prevention of NSAID-induced gastric ulcers. It is also used (and approved in other countries) to induce labor and as an abortifacient. It was invented and marketed by G.D. Searle & Company (now Pfizer) under the trade name <strong>Cytotec</strong>, but other brand-name and generic formulations are now available as well.</p>
<p>Chemically, misoprostol is a synthetic prostaglandin E<sub>1</sub> (PGE<sub>1</sub>) analogue.</p>
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<h2><span class="mw-headline">Indicated (in the United States) use</span></h2>
<p>Misoprostol stimulates increased secretion of the protective mucus that lines the gastrointestinal tract and increases mucosal blood flow, thereby increasing mucosal integrity. It is sometimes co-prescribed with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs to prevent their common adverse effect of gastric ulceration (e.g. with Diclofenac in Arthrotec).</p>
<p> </p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline">Off label (in the United States) uses</span></h2>
<p> </p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline">Obstetric and gynecological</span></h3>
<p> </p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline">Labor induction</span></h4>
<p>Misoprostol is commonly prescribed off-label to cause labor induction by promoting uterine contractions and the ripening (effacement or thinning) of the cervix. Misoprostol is considered to be more effective than oxytocin and dinoprostone, the FDA-approved drugs for medically necessary labor induction. It is also less expensive than either of these two drugs.</p>
<p>Concern has been expressed about the overuse or misuse of misoprostol for labor induction. High doses can cause uterine rupture (especially in women who have previously had a caesarean section), fetal death, and severe fetal brain damage.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-0">[1]</sup> All induction agents cause uterine contractions – this can affect the blood supply to the fetus, especially if contractions become very frequent. Induction agents therefore need to be used with great care and with close fetal monitoring. One of the problems with induction using prostaglandins (such as dinoprostone or misoprostol) is that once given, the process is difficult to reverse. In contrast, oxytocin has a half-life of about 10 minutes and is administered via intravenous drip, which can be stopped immediately in the event of adverse reaction.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-1">[2]</sup></p>
<p>One clinical trial to establish a controlled delivery method for misoprostol<sup class="reference" id="_ref-2">[3]</sup> was conducted in 2006-2007; the trial showed no difference in effectiveness between misoprostol and dinoprostone when both were introduced via FDA-approved methods.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since March 2008" style="WHITE-SPACE: nowrap">[<em>citation needed</em>]</span></sup> A recent study demonstrates that intravaginal administration of misoprostol is comparable in safety, but more effective for induction of labor than intravaginal dinoprostone <sup class="reference" id="_ref-3">[4]</sup>. This result concurs with trial meta-analysis by the Cochrane Collaboration, which demonstrates no difference in efficacy or side effects between inductions undertaken with dinoprostone or misoprostol (when used at the correct dosage).<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since September 2007" style="WHITE-SPACE: nowrap">[<em>citation needed</em>]</span></sup></p>
<p>The manufacturers of misoprostol have never sought to license misoprostol for labor induction. Recently, however, generic forms of misoprostol have become available, and it is now licensed for labor induction in Egypt and Brazil, and a licensed induction product is expected in the UK in 2008.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-4">[5]</sup> <sup class="reference" id="_ref-5">[6]</sup></p>
<p>The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists advocates misoprostol for labor inductions, and it is on the WHO essential drug list for labour induction.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-6">[7]</sup></p>
<p> </p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline">Abortion for elective termination/miscarriage treatment/postpartum retained placenta</span></h4>
<p>Misoprostol is one of the drugs used for medical abortions in lieu of surgical evacuation. Both medical and surgical methods can be used to removed products of conception in the case of missed or incomplete miscarriage, retained postpartum placenta, and for elective abortion. There are some advantages to using drugs instead of surgical intervention in these situations, as drugs are not invasive, reducing the risk from general anesthesia, infection as well as secondary infertility due to scarring and intrauterine adhesions (Asherman's Syndrome).<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since March 2008" style="WHITE-SPACE: nowrap">[<em>citation needed</em>]</span></sup> Furthermore it is cheap and easy to administer. In many countries it is used in conjunction with mifepristone (RU-486). After mifepristone is taken orally, misoprostol is taken 24–72 hours later causing the expulsion of the fetus and associated matter in approximately 92% of the cases. No large studies have established a protocol for the use of misoprostol alone,<sup class="reference" id="_ref-7">[8]</sup> and the range of efficacy is 65%–93% depending on sample size, gestational age, and other test variables;<sup class="reference" id="_ref-8">[9]</sup> Misoprostol alone may be more effective in earlier gestation.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-9">[10]</sup> The side effects associated with the misoprostol-only regimen are generally much more severe than those associated with the combined regimens. Misoprostol is used for self-induced abortions in Brazil, where black market prices exceed US $100 per dose. Illegal medically-unsupervised misoprostol abortions in Brazil are associated with a lower complication rate than other forms of illegal self-induced abortion, but are still associated with a higher complication rate than legal, medically supervised surgical and chemical abortions. Failed misoprostol abortions are associated with birth defects in some cases. <sup class="reference" id="_ref-10">[11]</sup> <sup class="reference" id="_ref-11">[12]</sup><sup class="reference" id="_ref-12">[13]</sup> <sup class="reference" id="_ref-13">[14]</sup> <sup class="reference" id="_ref-14">[15]</sup> Poor immigrant populations in New York have also been observed to use self-administered misoprostol to induce abortions, as this method is much cheaper than a surgical abortion (about $2 per dose).<sup class="reference" id="_ref-15">[16]</sup></p>
<p>Misoprostol is sometimes used to treat early fetal death in the absence of spontaneous miscarriage, but further research is needed to establish a safe, effective protocol. <sup class="reference" id="_ref-16">[17]</sup> It can also be used to dilate the cervix in preparation for a surgical abortion. Misoprostol is also used to prevent and treat post-partum hemorrhage, but it has more side effects and is less effective than oxytocin for this purpose. <sup class="reference" id="_ref-17">[18]</sup></p>
<p> </p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline">Erectile dysfunction</span></h3>
<p>A 1998 study found misoprostol to be helpful as a supplement to a vacuum pump (VED) in the treatment of erectile dysfunction, but not effective by itself.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-18">[19]</sup> The paper concluded "The intraurethral application of misoprostol significantly improves the quality of VED-induced erections. This agent seems to be a cheap intraurethral adjunct to VED with mild to moderate local side-effects".</p>
<p> </p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline">Side effects and contraindications</span></h2>
<p>The most commonly reported adverse effect of taking a misoprostol 200 µg tablet by mouth four times a day to reduce the risk of NSAID-induced gastric ulcers is diarrhea. In clinical trials, an average 13% of patients reported diarrhea, which was dose-related and usually developed early in the course of therapy (after 13 days) and was usually self-limiting (often resolving within 8 days), but sometimes (in 2% of patients) required discontinuation of misoprostol.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-Cytotec_USPI_0">[20]</sup></p>
<p>The next most commonly reported adverse effects of taking a misoprostol 200 µg tablet by mouth four times a day to reduce the risk of NSAID-induced gastric ulcers are: abdominal pain, nausea, flatulence, headache, dyspepsia, vomiting, and constipation, but none of these adverse effects occurred significantly more often than when taking placebos.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-Cytotec_USPI_1">[20]</sup></p>
<p>Misoprostol should not be taken by pregnant women to reduce the risk of NSAID-induced gastric ulcers because it increases uterine tone and contractions in pregnancy which may cause partial or complete abortions, and because its use in pregnancy has been associated with birth defects.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-Cytotec_USPI_2">[20]</sup><sup class="reference" id="_ref-Cytotec_UK_SPC_0">[21]</sup></p>
<p> </p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline">References</span></h2>
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2">
<ol class="references">
<li id="_note-0"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-0">^</a></strong> <a class="mw-redirect" title="Sharyn Alfonsi" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharyn_Alfonsi">Alfonsi, Sharyn</a> (November 30, 2004). <a class="external text" title="http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/11/30/eveningnews/main658388.shtml" href="http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/11/30/eveningnews/main658388.shtml" rel="nofollow">Labor Induction Drug Under Fire</a>. <em><a title="CBS Evening News" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBS_Evening_News">CBS Evening News</a></em>. Retrieved on <a title="2006" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006">2006</a>-<a title="August 22" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_22">08-22</a>. </li>
<li id="_note-1"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-1">^</a></strong> <a title="Ina May Gaskin" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ina_May_Gaskin">Ina May Gaskin</a> (July 11, 2000). <a class="external text" title="http://archive.salon.com/health/feature/2000/07/11/cytotec/index.html" href="http://archive.salon.com/health/feature/2000/07/11/cytotec/index.html" rel="nofollow">Cytotec: Dangerous Experiment or Panacea</a>. <em><a title="Salon.com" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salon.com">Salon.com</a></em>. Retrieved on <a title="2006" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006">2006</a>-<a title="September 8" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_8">09-08</a>. </li>
<li id="_note-2"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-2">^</a></strong> <a class="external text" title="http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct/show/NCT00308711?order=5" href="http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct/show/NCT00308711?order=5" rel="nofollow">Clinical Trial Description at clinicaltrials.gov</a>. <em>Information on Clinical Trials and Human Research Studies</em>. NIH (August, 2006). Retrieved on <a title="2006" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006">2006</a>-<a title="August 29" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_29">08-29</a>. </li>
<li id="_note-3"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-3">^</a></strong> A randomized comparison between intravaginal misoprostol and prostaglandin E2 for labor induction. Sifakis S, Angelakis E, Avgoustinakis E, Fragouli Y, Mantas N, Koukoura O, Vardaki E, Koumantakis E.Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2007;275(4):263-7. </li>
<li id="_note-4"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-4">^</a></strong> Misoprostol.org. <a class="external text" title="http://http://www.misoprostol.org/File/availability.php.html" href="http://http//www.misoprostol.org/File/availability.php.html" rel="nofollow">Misoprostol.org website</a>. </li>
<li id="_note-5"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-5">^</a></strong> Alliance Pharmaceuticals. <a class="external text" title="http://www.labourinduction.co.uk/defaultflash.asp?page=1.html" href="http://www.labourinduction.co.uk/defaultflash.asp?page=1.html" rel="nofollow">Labour Induction website</a>. </li>
<li id="_note-6"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-6">^</a></strong> WHO. <a class="external text" title="http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2005/a87017_eng.pdf" href="http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2005/a87017_eng.pdf" rel="nofollow">WHO Essential drug list 2005 section 22.1 website</a>. </li>
<li id="_note-7"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-7">^</a></strong> <a class="external text" title="http://www.rhtp.org/news/publications/documents/Miso%20for%20Pregnancy%20Termination.Bibliography.pdf" href="http://www.rhtp.org/news/publications/documents/Miso%20for%20Pregnancy%20Termination.Bibliography.pdf" rel="nofollow">Annotated Bibliography on Misoprostol Alone for Early Abortion</a>. Gynuity Health Projects. Retrieved on <a title="2006" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006">2006</a>-<a title="August 22" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_22">08-22</a>. </li>
<li id="_note-8"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-8">^</a></strong> <a class="external text" title="http://www.medicationabortion.com/misoprostol/index.html" href="http://www.medicationabortion.com/misoprostol/index.html" rel="nofollow">Medication Abortion: Misoprostol Alone</a>. Ibis. Retrieved on <a title="2006" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006">2006</a>-<a title="September 8" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_8">09-08</a>. </li>
<li id="_note-9"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-9">^</a></strong> <a class="external text" title="http://www.rhtp.org/news/publications/documents/Miso%20for%20Pregnancy%20Termination.IFU.English.pdf#search=%22%20site%3Awww.rhtp.org%20misoprostol%20abortion%20success%20rate%22" href="http://www.rhtp.org/news/publications/documents/Miso%20for%20Pregnancy%20Termination.IFU.English.pdf#search=%22%20site%3Awww.rhtp.org%20misoprostol%20abortion%20success%20rate%22" rel="nofollow">Instructions for Use: Abortion Induction with Misoprostol in Pregnancies up to 9 Weeks LMP</a> (PDF). Gynuity Health Projects (2003). Retrieved on <a title="2006" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006">2006</a>-<a title="August 24" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_24">08-24</a>. </li>
<li id="_note-10"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-10">^</a></strong> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Corta, SH et al (1993). "Misoprostol and illegal abortion in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil". <em>Lancet</em> 15 (341). <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8098402" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8098402">PMID 8098402</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Misoprostol+and+illegal+abortion+in+Rio+de+Janeiro%2C+Brazil&rft.jtitle=Lancet&rft.date=1993&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=341&rft.au=Corta%2C+SH+et+al"> </span> </li>
<li id="_note-11"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-11">^</a></strong> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Coelho, HL et al (1994). "Misoprostol: the experience of women in Fortaleza, Brazil". <em>Contraception</em> 49 (2). <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8143449" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8143449">PMID 8143449</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Misoprostol%3A+the+experience+of+women+in+Fortaleza%2C+Brazil&rft.jtitle=Contraception&rft.date=1994&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=2&rft.au=Coelho%2C+HL+et+al"> </span> </li>
<li id="_note-12"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-12">^</a></strong> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Barbosa, RM (1993). "The Brazilian Experience with Cytotec". <em>Stud Fam Plann</em> 24 (4): 236-40. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8212093" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8212093">PMID 8212093</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Brazilian+Experience+with+Cytotec&rft.jtitle=Stud+Fam+Plann&rft.date=1993&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=4&rft.au=Barbosa%2C+RM&rft.pages=236-40"> </span> </li>
<li id="_note-13"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-13">^</a></strong> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Rocha, J et al (1994). "Brazil investigates drug's possible link with birth defects". <em>BMJ</em> 309 (6957). <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7950553" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7950553">PMID 7950553</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Brazil+investigates+drug%27s+possible+link+with+birth+defects&rft.jtitle=BMJ&rft.date=1994&rft.volume=309&rft.issue=6957&rft.au=Rocha%2C+J+et+al"> </span> </li>
<li id="_note-14"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-14">^</a></strong> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Gonzalez, CH et al (1993). "Limb deficiency with or without Mobius sequence in seven Brazilian children associated with misoprostol use in the first trimester of pregnancy". <em>Am J Med Genet</em> 47 (1). <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8368254" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8368254">PMID 8368254</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Limb+deficiency+with+or+without+Mobius+sequence+in+seven+Brazilian+children+associated+with+misoprostol+use+in+the+first+trimester+of+pregnancy&rft.jtitle=Am+J+Med+Genet&rft.date=1993&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=1&rft.au=Gonzalez%2C+CH+et+al"> </span> </li>
<li id="_note-15"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-15">^</a></strong> John Leland: "<a class="external text" title="http://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/02/weekinreview/02leland.html" href="http://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/02/weekinreview/02leland.html" rel="nofollow">Abortion Might Outgrow Its Need for Roe v. Wade</a>", <em><a title="The New York Times" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times">The New York Times</a></em>, October 2, 2005 </li>
<li id="_note-16"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-16">^</a></strong> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Neilson JP et al (2006). "Medical treatment for early fetal death (less than 24 weeks)". <em>Cochrane Database Syst Rev</em> 19 (3). <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16855990" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16855990">PMID 16855990</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Medical+treatment+for+early+fetal+death+%28less+than+24+weeks%29&rft.jtitle=Cochrane+Database+Syst+Rev&rft.date=2006&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=3&rft.au=Neilson+JP+et+al"> </span> </li>
<li id="_note-17"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-17">^</a></strong> J Villar MD et al (2002). <a class="external text" title="http://www.greenjournal.org/cgi/content/abstract/100/6/1301" href="http://www.greenjournal.org/cgi/content/abstract/100/6/1301" rel="nofollow">Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials of Misoprostol to Prevent Postpartum Hemorrhage</a>. Obstetrics & Gynecology. Retrieved on <a title="2006" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006">2006</a>-<a title="September 21" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_21">09-21</a>. </li>
<li id="_note-18"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-18">^</a></strong> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Ekmekçioğlu, Demirci, Yilmaz & Tatli (1998). "<a class="external text" title="http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/full/10.1046/j.1460-2679.1998.00030.x" href="http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/full/10.1046/j.1460-2679.1998.00030.x" rel="nofollow">Intraurethral misoprostol: a different agent in the treatment of erectile dysfunction</a>". <em>Sexual Dysfunction</em> 1: 161. <a title="Digital object identifier" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" title="http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1460-2679.1998.00030.x" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1460-2679.1998.00030.x" rel="nofollow">10.1046/j.1460-2679.1998.00030.x</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Intraurethral+misoprostol%3A+a+different+agent+in+the+treatment+of+erectile+dysfunction&rft.jtitle=Sexual+Dysfunction&rft.date=1998&rft.volume=1&rft.au=Ekmek%C3%A7io%C4%9Flu%2C+Demirci%2C+Yilmaz+%26+Tatli&rft.pages=161&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.blackwell-synergy.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1046%2Fj.1460-2679.1998.00030.x"> </span> </li>
<li id="_note-Cytotec_USPI">^ <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-Cytotec_USPI_0"><sup><em><strong>a</strong></em></sup></a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-Cytotec_USPI_1"><sup><em><strong>b</strong></em></sup></a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-Cytotec_USPI_2"><sup><em><strong>c</strong></em></sup></a> <a title="Pfizer" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfizer">Pfizer</a> (September 2006). <a class="external text" title="http://www.pfizer.com/pfizer/download/uspi_cytotec.pdf" href="http://www.pfizer.com/pfizer/download/uspi_cytotec.pdf" rel="nofollow">Cytotec US Prescribing Information</a>. Retrieved on <a title="2007" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007">2007</a>-<a title="March 15" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_15">03-15</a>. </li>
<li id="_note-Cytotec_UK_SPC"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-Cytotec_UK_SPC_0">^</a></strong> <a title="Pharmacia" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacia">Pharmacia</a> (July 2004). <a class="external text" title="http://emc.medicines.org.uk/emc/assets/c/html/displaydoc.asp?documentid=9352" href="http://emc.medicines.org.uk/emc/assets/c/html/displaydoc.asp?documentid=9352" rel="nofollow">Cytotec UK SPC (Summary of Product Characteristics)</a>. Retrieved on <a title="2007" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007">2007</a>-<a title="March 15" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_15">03-15</a>. </li>
</ol>
</div>
<p><a id="External_links_and_further_reading" name="External_links_and_further_reading"></a></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline">External links and further reading</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><a class="external text" title="http://www.drugdigest.org/DD/PrintablePages/Monograph/0,7765,459%7C,00.html" href="http://www.drugdigest.org/DD/PrintablePages/Monograph/0,7765,459%7C,00.html" rel="nofollow">Misoprostol</a> from Drugdigest </li>
<li><a class="external text" title="http://www.misoprostol.org" href="http://www.misoprostol.org/" rel="nofollow">Misoprostol.org</a> an independent website containing dosage guidelines and advice on misoprostol use. </li>
</ul>
<p>Chemically, misoprostol is a synthetic prostaglandin E<sub>1</sub> (PGE<sub>1</sub>) analogue.</p>
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<p> </p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline">Indicated (in the United States) use</span></h2>
<p>Misoprostol stimulates increased secretion of the protective mucus that lines the gastrointestinal tract and increases mucosal blood flow, thereby increasing mucosal integrity. It is sometimes co-prescribed with non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs to prevent their common adverse effect of gastric ulceration (e.g. with Diclofenac in Arthrotec).</p>
<p> </p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline">Off label (in the United States) uses</span></h2>
<p> </p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline">Obstetric and gynecological</span></h3>
<p> </p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline">Labor induction</span></h4>
<p>Misoprostol is commonly prescribed off-label to cause labor induction by promoting uterine contractions and the ripening (effacement or thinning) of the cervix. Misoprostol is considered to be more effective than oxytocin and dinoprostone, the FDA-approved drugs for medically necessary labor induction. It is also less expensive than either of these two drugs.</p>
<p>Concern has been expressed about the overuse or misuse of misoprostol for labor induction. High doses can cause uterine rupture (especially in women who have previously had a caesarean section), fetal death, and severe fetal brain damage.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-0">[1]</sup> All induction agents cause uterine contractions – this can affect the blood supply to the fetus, especially if contractions become very frequent. Induction agents therefore need to be used with great care and with close fetal monitoring. One of the problems with induction using prostaglandins (such as dinoprostone or misoprostol) is that once given, the process is difficult to reverse. In contrast, oxytocin has a half-life of about 10 minutes and is administered via intravenous drip, which can be stopped immediately in the event of adverse reaction.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-1">[2]</sup></p>
<p>One clinical trial to establish a controlled delivery method for misoprostol<sup class="reference" id="_ref-2">[3]</sup> was conducted in 2006-2007; the trial showed no difference in effectiveness between misoprostol and dinoprostone when both were introduced via FDA-approved methods.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since March 2008" style="WHITE-SPACE: nowrap">[<em>citation needed</em>]</span></sup> A recent study demonstrates that intravaginal administration of misoprostol is comparable in safety, but more effective for induction of labor than intravaginal dinoprostone <sup class="reference" id="_ref-3">[4]</sup>. This result concurs with trial meta-analysis by the Cochrane Collaboration, which demonstrates no difference in efficacy or side effects between inductions undertaken with dinoprostone or misoprostol (when used at the correct dosage).<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since September 2007" style="WHITE-SPACE: nowrap">[<em>citation needed</em>]</span></sup></p>
<p>The manufacturers of misoprostol have never sought to license misoprostol for labor induction. Recently, however, generic forms of misoprostol have become available, and it is now licensed for labor induction in Egypt and Brazil, and a licensed induction product is expected in the UK in 2008.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-4">[5]</sup> <sup class="reference" id="_ref-5">[6]</sup></p>
<p>The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists advocates misoprostol for labor inductions, and it is on the WHO essential drug list for labour induction.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-6">[7]</sup></p>
<p> </p>
<h4><span class="mw-headline">Abortion for elective termination/miscarriage treatment/postpartum retained placenta</span></h4>
<p>Misoprostol is one of the drugs used for medical abortions in lieu of surgical evacuation. Both medical and surgical methods can be used to removed products of conception in the case of missed or incomplete miscarriage, retained postpartum placenta, and for elective abortion. There are some advantages to using drugs instead of surgical intervention in these situations, as drugs are not invasive, reducing the risk from general anesthesia, infection as well as secondary infertility due to scarring and intrauterine adhesions (Asherman's Syndrome).<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since March 2008" style="WHITE-SPACE: nowrap">[<em>citation needed</em>]</span></sup> Furthermore it is cheap and easy to administer. In many countries it is used in conjunction with mifepristone (RU-486). After mifepristone is taken orally, misoprostol is taken 24–72 hours later causing the expulsion of the fetus and associated matter in approximately 92% of the cases. No large studies have established a protocol for the use of misoprostol alone,<sup class="reference" id="_ref-7">[8]</sup> and the range of efficacy is 65%–93% depending on sample size, gestational age, and other test variables;<sup class="reference" id="_ref-8">[9]</sup> Misoprostol alone may be more effective in earlier gestation.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-9">[10]</sup> The side effects associated with the misoprostol-only regimen are generally much more severe than those associated with the combined regimens. Misoprostol is used for self-induced abortions in Brazil, where black market prices exceed US $100 per dose. Illegal medically-unsupervised misoprostol abortions in Brazil are associated with a lower complication rate than other forms of illegal self-induced abortion, but are still associated with a higher complication rate than legal, medically supervised surgical and chemical abortions. Failed misoprostol abortions are associated with birth defects in some cases. <sup class="reference" id="_ref-10">[11]</sup> <sup class="reference" id="_ref-11">[12]</sup><sup class="reference" id="_ref-12">[13]</sup> <sup class="reference" id="_ref-13">[14]</sup> <sup class="reference" id="_ref-14">[15]</sup> Poor immigrant populations in New York have also been observed to use self-administered misoprostol to induce abortions, as this method is much cheaper than a surgical abortion (about $2 per dose).<sup class="reference" id="_ref-15">[16]</sup></p>
<p>Misoprostol is sometimes used to treat early fetal death in the absence of spontaneous miscarriage, but further research is needed to establish a safe, effective protocol. <sup class="reference" id="_ref-16">[17]</sup> It can also be used to dilate the cervix in preparation for a surgical abortion. Misoprostol is also used to prevent and treat post-partum hemorrhage, but it has more side effects and is less effective than oxytocin for this purpose. <sup class="reference" id="_ref-17">[18]</sup></p>
<p> </p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline">Erectile dysfunction</span></h3>
<p>A 1998 study found misoprostol to be helpful as a supplement to a vacuum pump (VED) in the treatment of erectile dysfunction, but not effective by itself.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-18">[19]</sup> The paper concluded "The intraurethral application of misoprostol significantly improves the quality of VED-induced erections. This agent seems to be a cheap intraurethral adjunct to VED with mild to moderate local side-effects".</p>
<p> </p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline">Side effects and contraindications</span></h2>
<p>The most commonly reported adverse effect of taking a misoprostol 200 µg tablet by mouth four times a day to reduce the risk of NSAID-induced gastric ulcers is diarrhea. In clinical trials, an average 13% of patients reported diarrhea, which was dose-related and usually developed early in the course of therapy (after 13 days) and was usually self-limiting (often resolving within 8 days), but sometimes (in 2% of patients) required discontinuation of misoprostol.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-Cytotec_USPI_0">[20]</sup></p>
<p>The next most commonly reported adverse effects of taking a misoprostol 200 µg tablet by mouth four times a day to reduce the risk of NSAID-induced gastric ulcers are: abdominal pain, nausea, flatulence, headache, dyspepsia, vomiting, and constipation, but none of these adverse effects occurred significantly more often than when taking placebos.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-Cytotec_USPI_1">[20]</sup></p>
<p>Misoprostol should not be taken by pregnant women to reduce the risk of NSAID-induced gastric ulcers because it increases uterine tone and contractions in pregnancy which may cause partial or complete abortions, and because its use in pregnancy has been associated with birth defects.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-Cytotec_USPI_2">[20]</sup><sup class="reference" id="_ref-Cytotec_UK_SPC_0">[21]</sup></p>
<p> </p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline">References</span></h2>
<div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2">
<ol class="references">
<li id="_note-0"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-0">^</a></strong> <a class="mw-redirect" title="Sharyn Alfonsi" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharyn_Alfonsi">Alfonsi, Sharyn</a> (November 30, 2004). <a class="external text" title="http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/11/30/eveningnews/main658388.shtml" href="http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2004/11/30/eveningnews/main658388.shtml" rel="nofollow">Labor Induction Drug Under Fire</a>. <em><a title="CBS Evening News" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBS_Evening_News">CBS Evening News</a></em>. Retrieved on <a title="2006" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006">2006</a>-<a title="August 22" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_22">08-22</a>. </li>
<li id="_note-1"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-1">^</a></strong> <a title="Ina May Gaskin" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ina_May_Gaskin">Ina May Gaskin</a> (July 11, 2000). <a class="external text" title="http://archive.salon.com/health/feature/2000/07/11/cytotec/index.html" href="http://archive.salon.com/health/feature/2000/07/11/cytotec/index.html" rel="nofollow">Cytotec: Dangerous Experiment or Panacea</a>. <em><a title="Salon.com" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salon.com">Salon.com</a></em>. Retrieved on <a title="2006" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006">2006</a>-<a title="September 8" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_8">09-08</a>. </li>
<li id="_note-2"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-2">^</a></strong> <a class="external text" title="http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct/show/NCT00308711?order=5" href="http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct/show/NCT00308711?order=5" rel="nofollow">Clinical Trial Description at clinicaltrials.gov</a>. <em>Information on Clinical Trials and Human Research Studies</em>. NIH (August, 2006). Retrieved on <a title="2006" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006">2006</a>-<a title="August 29" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_29">08-29</a>. </li>
<li id="_note-3"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-3">^</a></strong> A randomized comparison between intravaginal misoprostol and prostaglandin E2 for labor induction. Sifakis S, Angelakis E, Avgoustinakis E, Fragouli Y, Mantas N, Koukoura O, Vardaki E, Koumantakis E.Arch Gynecol Obstet. 2007;275(4):263-7. </li>
<li id="_note-4"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-4">^</a></strong> Misoprostol.org. <a class="external text" title="http://http://www.misoprostol.org/File/availability.php.html" href="http://http//www.misoprostol.org/File/availability.php.html" rel="nofollow">Misoprostol.org website</a>. </li>
<li id="_note-5"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-5">^</a></strong> Alliance Pharmaceuticals. <a class="external text" title="http://www.labourinduction.co.uk/defaultflash.asp?page=1.html" href="http://www.labourinduction.co.uk/defaultflash.asp?page=1.html" rel="nofollow">Labour Induction website</a>. </li>
<li id="_note-6"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-6">^</a></strong> WHO. <a class="external text" title="http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2005/a87017_eng.pdf" href="http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2005/a87017_eng.pdf" rel="nofollow">WHO Essential drug list 2005 section 22.1 website</a>. </li>
<li id="_note-7"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-7">^</a></strong> <a class="external text" title="http://www.rhtp.org/news/publications/documents/Miso%20for%20Pregnancy%20Termination.Bibliography.pdf" href="http://www.rhtp.org/news/publications/documents/Miso%20for%20Pregnancy%20Termination.Bibliography.pdf" rel="nofollow">Annotated Bibliography on Misoprostol Alone for Early Abortion</a>. Gynuity Health Projects. Retrieved on <a title="2006" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006">2006</a>-<a title="August 22" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_22">08-22</a>. </li>
<li id="_note-8"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-8">^</a></strong> <a class="external text" title="http://www.medicationabortion.com/misoprostol/index.html" href="http://www.medicationabortion.com/misoprostol/index.html" rel="nofollow">Medication Abortion: Misoprostol Alone</a>. Ibis. Retrieved on <a title="2006" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006">2006</a>-<a title="September 8" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_8">09-08</a>. </li>
<li id="_note-9"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-9">^</a></strong> <a class="external text" title="http://www.rhtp.org/news/publications/documents/Miso%20for%20Pregnancy%20Termination.IFU.English.pdf#search=%22%20site%3Awww.rhtp.org%20misoprostol%20abortion%20success%20rate%22" href="http://www.rhtp.org/news/publications/documents/Miso%20for%20Pregnancy%20Termination.IFU.English.pdf#search=%22%20site%3Awww.rhtp.org%20misoprostol%20abortion%20success%20rate%22" rel="nofollow">Instructions for Use: Abortion Induction with Misoprostol in Pregnancies up to 9 Weeks LMP</a> (PDF). Gynuity Health Projects (2003). Retrieved on <a title="2006" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006">2006</a>-<a title="August 24" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_24">08-24</a>. </li>
<li id="_note-10"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-10">^</a></strong> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Corta, SH et al (1993). "Misoprostol and illegal abortion in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil". <em>Lancet</em> 15 (341). <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8098402" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8098402">PMID 8098402</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Misoprostol+and+illegal+abortion+in+Rio+de+Janeiro%2C+Brazil&rft.jtitle=Lancet&rft.date=1993&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=341&rft.au=Corta%2C+SH+et+al"> </span> </li>
<li id="_note-11"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-11">^</a></strong> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Coelho, HL et al (1994). "Misoprostol: the experience of women in Fortaleza, Brazil". <em>Contraception</em> 49 (2). <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8143449" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8143449">PMID 8143449</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Misoprostol%3A+the+experience+of+women+in+Fortaleza%2C+Brazil&rft.jtitle=Contraception&rft.date=1994&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=2&rft.au=Coelho%2C+HL+et+al"> </span> </li>
<li id="_note-12"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-12">^</a></strong> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Barbosa, RM (1993). "The Brazilian Experience with Cytotec". <em>Stud Fam Plann</em> 24 (4): 236-40. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8212093" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8212093">PMID 8212093</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=The+Brazilian+Experience+with+Cytotec&rft.jtitle=Stud+Fam+Plann&rft.date=1993&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=4&rft.au=Barbosa%2C+RM&rft.pages=236-40"> </span> </li>
<li id="_note-13"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-13">^</a></strong> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Rocha, J et al (1994). "Brazil investigates drug's possible link with birth defects". <em>BMJ</em> 309 (6957). <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7950553" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7950553">PMID 7950553</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Brazil+investigates+drug%27s+possible+link+with+birth+defects&rft.jtitle=BMJ&rft.date=1994&rft.volume=309&rft.issue=6957&rft.au=Rocha%2C+J+et+al"> </span> </li>
<li id="_note-14"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-14">^</a></strong> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Gonzalez, CH et al (1993). "Limb deficiency with or without Mobius sequence in seven Brazilian children associated with misoprostol use in the first trimester of pregnancy". <em>Am J Med Genet</em> 47 (1). <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8368254" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8368254">PMID 8368254</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Limb+deficiency+with+or+without+Mobius+sequence+in+seven+Brazilian+children+associated+with+misoprostol+use+in+the+first+trimester+of+pregnancy&rft.jtitle=Am+J+Med+Genet&rft.date=1993&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=1&rft.au=Gonzalez%2C+CH+et+al"> </span> </li>
<li id="_note-15"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-15">^</a></strong> John Leland: "<a class="external text" title="http://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/02/weekinreview/02leland.html" href="http://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/02/weekinreview/02leland.html" rel="nofollow">Abortion Might Outgrow Its Need for Roe v. Wade</a>", <em><a title="The New York Times" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times">The New York Times</a></em>, October 2, 2005 </li>
<li id="_note-16"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-16">^</a></strong> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Neilson JP et al (2006). "Medical treatment for early fetal death (less than 24 weeks)". <em>Cochrane Database Syst Rev</em> 19 (3). <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16855990" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16855990">PMID 16855990</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Medical+treatment+for+early+fetal+death+%28less+than+24+weeks%29&rft.jtitle=Cochrane+Database+Syst+Rev&rft.date=2006&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=3&rft.au=Neilson+JP+et+al"> </span> </li>
<li id="_note-17"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-17">^</a></strong> J Villar MD et al (2002). <a class="external text" title="http://www.greenjournal.org/cgi/content/abstract/100/6/1301" href="http://www.greenjournal.org/cgi/content/abstract/100/6/1301" rel="nofollow">Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials of Misoprostol to Prevent Postpartum Hemorrhage</a>. Obstetrics & Gynecology. Retrieved on <a title="2006" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006">2006</a>-<a title="September 21" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_21">09-21</a>. </li>
<li id="_note-18"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-18">^</a></strong> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Ekmekçioğlu, Demirci, Yilmaz & Tatli (1998). "<a class="external text" title="http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/full/10.1046/j.1460-2679.1998.00030.x" href="http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/full/10.1046/j.1460-2679.1998.00030.x" rel="nofollow">Intraurethral misoprostol: a different agent in the treatment of erectile dysfunction</a>". <em>Sexual Dysfunction</em> 1: 161. <a title="Digital object identifier" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" title="http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1460-2679.1998.00030.x" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1460-2679.1998.00030.x" rel="nofollow">10.1046/j.1460-2679.1998.00030.x</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Intraurethral+misoprostol%3A+a+different+agent+in+the+treatment+of+erectile+dysfunction&rft.jtitle=Sexual+Dysfunction&rft.date=1998&rft.volume=1&rft.au=Ekmek%C3%A7io%C4%9Flu%2C+Demirci%2C+Yilmaz+%26+Tatli&rft.pages=161&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.blackwell-synergy.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1046%2Fj.1460-2679.1998.00030.x"> </span> </li>
<li id="_note-Cytotec_USPI">^ <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-Cytotec_USPI_0"><sup><em><strong>a</strong></em></sup></a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-Cytotec_USPI_1"><sup><em><strong>b</strong></em></sup></a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-Cytotec_USPI_2"><sup><em><strong>c</strong></em></sup></a> <a title="Pfizer" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfizer">Pfizer</a> (September 2006). <a class="external text" title="http://www.pfizer.com/pfizer/download/uspi_cytotec.pdf" href="http://www.pfizer.com/pfizer/download/uspi_cytotec.pdf" rel="nofollow">Cytotec US Prescribing Information</a>. Retrieved on <a title="2007" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007">2007</a>-<a title="March 15" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_15">03-15</a>. </li>
<li id="_note-Cytotec_UK_SPC"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misoprostol#_ref-Cytotec_UK_SPC_0">^</a></strong> <a title="Pharmacia" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharmacia">Pharmacia</a> (July 2004). <a class="external text" title="http://emc.medicines.org.uk/emc/assets/c/html/displaydoc.asp?documentid=9352" href="http://emc.medicines.org.uk/emc/assets/c/html/displaydoc.asp?documentid=9352" rel="nofollow">Cytotec UK SPC (Summary of Product Characteristics)</a>. Retrieved on <a title="2007" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007">2007</a>-<a title="March 15" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/March_15">03-15</a>. </li>
</ol>
</div>
<p><a id="External_links_and_further_reading" name="External_links_and_further_reading"></a></p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline">External links and further reading</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><a class="external text" title="http://www.drugdigest.org/DD/PrintablePages/Monograph/0,7765,459%7C,00.html" href="http://www.drugdigest.org/DD/PrintablePages/Monograph/0,7765,459%7C,00.html" rel="nofollow">Misoprostol</a> from Drugdigest </li>
<li><a class="external text" title="http://www.misoprostol.org" href="http://www.misoprostol.org/" rel="nofollow">Misoprostol.org</a> an independent website containing dosage guidelines and advice on misoprostol use. </li>
</ul>
