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<p><strong>Genetic engineering</strong>, <strong>recombinant DNA technology</strong>, <strong>genetic modification/manipulation</strong> (<strong>GM</strong>) and <strong>gene splicing</strong> are terms that are applied to the manipulation of genes, generally implying that the process is outside the organism's natural reproductive process. It involves the isolation, manipulation and reintroduction of DNA into cells or model organisms, usually to express a protein to reach desired effects. The aim is to introduce new characteristics or attributes physiologically or physically, such as making a crop resistant to a herbicide, introducing a novel trait, enhancing existing ones, or producing a new protein or enzyme. Successful endeavours include the manufacture of human insulin through the use of modified bacteria, the manufacture of erythropoietin in Chinese hamster ovary cells, and the production of new types of experimental mice such as the OncoMouse (cancer mouse) for research.</p>

<p><strong>DEFINITION</strong>: <em>Genetic Engineering</em> is the scientific alteration of genes or genetic material to produce desirable new traits in organisms or to eliminate undesirable ones.</p>

<p>Since a protein sequence is specified by a segment of DNA called a gene, novel versions of that protein can be produced by changing the DNA sequence of the gene. There are a number of ways through which this could be achieved. After isolating a section of DNA that includes the gene, the gene or required portion of the gene is cut out. After modification of the sequence if necessary, it may be introduced (spliced) into a different DNA segment or into a vector for transformation into living cells. Daniel Nathans and Hamilton Smith received the 1978 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their isolation of restriction endonucleases, which are able to cut DNA at specific sites. Together with ligase, which can join fragments of DNA together, restriction enzymes formed the initial basis of recombinant DNA technology. Some groups have argued<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since March 2007" style="WHITE-SPACE: nowrap">[<em>citation needed</em>]</span></sup> that genetic engineering is wrong and is &quot;doing the work of God&quot;, but most scientists believe that genetic engineering is essential to help future medical discoveries<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since May 2007" style="WHITE-SPACE: nowrap">[<em>citation needed</em>]</span></sup>. However, even with regard to this technology's great potential, scientists around the world have raised concerns about the introduction of genetically engineered plants and animals into the environment and the potential dangers of human consumption of GM foods. They say that these organisms have the potential to spread their modified genes into native populations thereby disrupting natural ecosystems. See also GM Food Controversies, and Genetically modified organism for more information on GM controversies. Professor Stephen Hawking defended the genetic enhancing of our species in order to compete with Artificial intelligence.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-0"><font color="#800080">[1]</font><br />

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<h2><span class="mw-headline">Applications</span></h2>

<li>Genetic Pollution </li>

<li>Genetic Erosion </li>

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<h2><span class="mw-headline">External links</span></h2>

<h3><span class="mw-headline">General</span></h3>

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<li><a class="external text" title="http://www.rsrevision.com/Alevel/ethics/genetic_engineering/index.htm" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.rsrevision.com/Alevel/ethics/genetic_engineering/index.htm">Genetic Engineering</a> A UK site for students, with case studies and ethical responses </li>

<li><a class="external text" title="http://www.bootstrike.com/Genetics/" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.bootstrike.com/Genetics/">Introduction to Genetic Engineering</a> Covers general information on Genetic Engineering including cloning, stem cells and DNA. </li>

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