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Bacteria

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There are approximately ten times as many bacterial cells as human cells in the human body, with large numbers of bacteria on the skin and in the digestive tract.[5] Although the vast majority of these bacteria are rendered harmless or beneficial by the protective effects of the immune system, a few pathogenic bacteria cause infectious diseases, including cholera, syphilis, anthrax, leprosy and bubonic plague. The most common fatal bacterial diseases are respiratory infections, with tuberculosis alone killing about 2 million people a year, mostly in sub-Saharan Africa.[6] In developed countries, antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections and in various agricultural processes, so antibiotic resistance is becoming common. In industry, bacteria are important in processes such as wastewater treatment, the production of cheese and yoghurt, and the manufacture of antibiotics and other chemicals.[7]

Bacteria are prokaryotes. Unlike cells of animals and other eukaryotes, bacterial cells do not contain a nucleus and rarely harbour membrane-bound organelles. Although the term bacteria traditionally included all prokaryotes, the scientific classification changed after the discovery in the 1990s that prokaryotic life consists of two very different groups of organisms that evolved independently from an ancient common ancestor. These evolutionary domains are called Bacteria and Archaea.[8]

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<h2>History of bacteriology</h2>

The existence of microorganisms was hypothesized during the late Middle Ages. In The Canon of Medicine (1020), Abū Alī ibn Sīnā (Avicenna) stated that bodily secretions are contaminated by "foul foreign earthly bodies" before a person becomes infected, but he did not view these bodies as primary causes of disease. When the Black Death bubonic plague reached al-Andalus in the 14th century, Ibn Khatima and Ibn al-Khatib wrote of infectious diseases being caused by "contagious entities" that enter the human body.[9][10] These early ideas about the contagious nature of some diseases were speculative in nature and not based around any science, however; they became more popular in Europe during the Renaissance, particularly through the writing of Girolamo Fracastoro.[11]

Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, the first person to observe bacteria using a microscope.</div>

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<h2>Morphology</h2>

Bacteria display a large diversity of cell morphologies and arrangements.</div>

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Many bacterial species exist simply as single cells, others associate in characteristic patterns: Neisseria form diploids (pairs), Streptococcus form chains, and Staphylococcus group together in "bunch of grapes" clusters. Bacteria can also be elongated to form filaments, for example the Actinobacteria. Filamentous bacteria are often surrounded by a sheath that contains many individual cells; certain types, such as species of the genus Nocardia, even form complex, branched filaments, similar in appearance to fungal mycelia.[39]

The range of sizes shown by prokaryotes, relative to those of other organisms and biomolecules</div>

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<dl><dd>Further information: Bacterial cell structure </dd></dl>

Diagram of the cellular structure of a typical bacterial cell</div>

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In many bacteria an S-layer of rigidly arrayed protein molecules covers the outside of the cell.[63] This layer provides chemical and physical protection for the cell surface and can act as a macromolecular diffusion barrier. S-layers have diverse but mostly poorly understood functions, but are known to act as virulence factors in Campylobacter and contain surface enzymes in Bacillus stearothermophilus.[64]

Helicobacter pylori electron micrograph, showing multiple flagella on the cell surface</div>

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<dl><dd>Further information: Endospores </dd></dl>

Bacillus anthracis (stained purple) growing in cerebrospinal fluid</div>

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<dl><dd>Further information: Microbial metabolism </dd></dl>

Filaments of photosynthetic cyanobacteria</div>

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Unlike multicellular organisms, increases in the size of bacteria (cell growth) and their reproduction by cell division are tightly linked in unicellular organisms. Bacteria grow to a fixed size and then reproduce through binary fission, a form of asexual reproduction.[87] Under optimal conditions, bacteria can grow and divide extremely rapidly, and bacterial populations can double as quickly as every 9.8 minutes.[88] In cell division, two identical clone daughter cells are produced. Some bacteria, while still reproducing asexually, form more complex reproductive structures that facilitate the dispersal of the newly formed daughter cells. Examples include fruiting body formation by Myxobacteria and arial hyphae formation by Streptomyces, or budding. Budding involves a cell forming a protrusion that breaks away and produces a daughter cell.

A growing colony of Escherichia coli cells.[89]</div>

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<dl><dd>Further information: Chemotaxis, Flagella, Pilus </dd></dl>

The different arrangements of bacterial flagella: A-Monotrichous; B-Lophotrichous; C-Amphitrichous; D-Peritrichous;</div>

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<h2>Classification and identification</h2>

Streptococcus mutans visualized with a Gram stain</div>

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Identification of bacteria in the laboratory is particularly relevant in medicine, where the correct treatment is determined by the bacterial species causing an infection. Consequently, the need to identify human pathogens was a major impetus for the development of techniques to identify bacteria.

Phylogenetic tree showing the incredible diversity of bacteria, compared to other organisms.[119] Eukaryotes are colored red, archaea green and bacteria blue.</div>

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<dl><dd>Further information: Bacteria and human health, Pathogen </dd></dl>

Color-enhanced scanning electron micrograph showing Salmonella typhimurium (red) invading cultured human cells</div>

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<li id="_note-0"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-0">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Fredrickson J, Zachara J, Balkwill D, et al (2004). "<a class="external text" title="http://aem.asm.org/cgi/content/full/70/7/4230?view=long&pmid=15240306" rel="nofollow" href="http://aem.asm.org/cgi/content/full/70/7/4230?view=long&pmid=15240306~~" rel="nofollow~~">Geomicrobiology of high-level nuclear waste-contaminated vadose sediments at the Hanford site, Washington state</a>". Appl Environ Microbiol 70 (7): 4230–41. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15240306" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15240306">PMID 15240306</a>.</cite> </li> <li id="_note-1"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-1">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Whitman W, Coleman D, Wiebe W (1998). "<a class="external text" title="http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/95/12/6578" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/95/12/6578~~" rel="nofollow~~">Prokaryotes: the unseen majority</a>". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 95 (12): 6578–83. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9618454" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9618454">PMID 9618454</a>.</cite> </li> <li id="_note-2"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-2">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Whitman W, Coleman D, Wiebe W (1998). "<a class="external text" title="http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/95/12/6578" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/95/12/6578" ~~rel="nofollow">~~>Prokaryotes: the unseen majority</a>". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 95 (12): 6578–83. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9618454" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9618454">PMID 9618454</a>.</cite> </li> <li id="_note-Rappe">^ <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-Rappe_0">a</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-Rappe_1">b</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Rappé MS, Giovannoni SJ (2003). "The uncultured microbial majority". Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 57: 369-94. <a title="Digital object identifier" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" title="http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.micro.57.030502.090759" rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.micro.57.030502.090759~~" rel="nofollow~~">10.1146/annurev.micro.57.030502.090759</a>. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14527284" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14527284">PMID 14527284</a>.</cite> </li> <li id="_note-3"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-3">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Sears CL (2005). "A dynamic partnership: celebrating our gut flora". Anaerobe 11 (5): 247-51. <a title="Digital object identifier" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" title="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.anaerobe.2005.05.001" rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.anaerobe.2005.05.001~~" rel="nofollow~~">10.1016/j.anaerobe.2005.05.001</a>. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16701579" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16701579">PMID 16701579</a>.</cite> </li> <li id="_note-4"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-4">^</a> <a class="external text" title="http://www.who.int/healthinfo/bodgbd2002revised/en/index.html" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.who.int/healthinfo/bodgbd2002revised/en/index.html~~" rel="nofollow~~">2002 WHO mortality data</a>. Retrieved on <a title="2007" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007">2007</a>-<a title="January 20" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_20">01-20</a>. </li>

<li id="_note-5"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-5">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Ishige T, Honda K, Shimizu S (2005). "Whole organism biocatalysis". Curr Opin Chem Biol 9 (2): 174–80. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15811802" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15811802">PMID 15811802</a>.</cite> </li>

<li id="_note-6"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-6">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Woese C, Kandler O, Wheelis M (1990). "<a class="external text" title="http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/87/12/4576" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/87/12/4576~~" rel="nofollow~~">Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya</a>". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 87 (12): 4576–9. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2112744" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2112744">PMID 2112744</a>.</cite> </li> <li id="_note-7"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-7">^</a> Ibrahim B. Syed, (2002). <a class="external text" title="http://www.ishim.net/ishimj/2/01.pdf" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ishim.net/ishimj/2/01.pdf~~" rel="nofollow~~">"Islamic Medicine: 1000 years ahead of its times"</a>, Journal of the Islamic Medical Association 2, p. 2-9. </li>

<li id="_note-8"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-8">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Ober WB, Aloush N (1982). "The plague at Granada, 1348-1349: Ibn Al-Khatib and ideas of contagion". Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine 58 (4): 418-24. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7052179" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7052179">PMID 7052179</a>.</cite> </li>

<li id="_note-9"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-9">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Beretta M (2003). "The revival of Lucretian atomism and contagious diseases during the renaissance". Medicina nei secoli 15 (2): 129-54. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15309812" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15309812">PMID 15309812</a>.</cite> </li>

<li id="_note-10"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-10">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Porter JR (1976). "<a class="external text" title="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=413956" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=413956~~" rel="nofollow~~">Antony van Leeuwenhoek: Tercentenary of his discovery of bacteria</a>". Bacteriological reviews 40 (2): 260-9. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/786250" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/786250">PMID 786250</a>. Retrieved on <a title="2007" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007">2007</a>-<a title="August 19" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_19">08-19</a>.</cite> </li> <li id="_note-11"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-11">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">van Leeuwenhoek A (1684). "<a class="external text" title="http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/content/120136/?k=Sep.+17%2c+1683" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/content/120136/?k=Sep.+17%2c+1683~~" rel="nofollow~~">An abstract of a letter from Mr. Anthony Leevvenhoek at Delft, dated Sep. 17, 1683, Containing Some Microscopical Observations, about Animals in the Scurf of the Teeth, the Substance Call'd Worms in the Nose, the Cuticula Consisting of Scales</a>". Philosophical Transactions (1683–1775) 14: 568-74. Retrieved on <a title="2007" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007">2007</a>-<a title="August 19" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_19">08-19</a>.</cite> </li> <li id="_note-12"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-12">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">van Leeuwenhoek A (1700). "<a class="external text" title="http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/link.asp?id=4j53731651310230" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/link.asp?id=4j53731651310230" ~~rel="nofollow">~~>Part of a Letter from Mr Antony van Leeuwenhoek, concerning the Worms in Sheeps Livers, Gnats, and Animalcula in the Excrements of Frogs</a>". Philosophical Transactions (1683–1775) 22: 509–18. Retrieved on <a title="2007" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007">2007</a>-<a title="August 19" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_19">08-19</a>.</cite> </li> <li id="_note-13"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-13">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">van Leeuwenhoek A (1702). "<a class="external text" title="http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/link.asp?id=fl73121jk4150280" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/link.asp?id=fl73121jk4150280~~" rel="nofollow~~">Part of a Letter from Mr Antony van Leeuwenhoek, F. R. S. concerning Green Weeds Growing in Water, and Some Animalcula Found about Them</a>". Philosophical Transactions (1683–1775) 23: 1304–11. Retrieved on <a title="2007" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007">2007</a>-<a title="August 19" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_19">08-19</a>.</cite> </li> <li id="_note-14"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-14">^</a> <a class="external text" title="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=bacteria" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=bacteria~~" rel="nofollow~~">Etymology of the word "bacteria"</a>. Online Etymology dictionary. Retrieved on <a title="2006" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006">2006</a>-<a title="November 23" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November_23">11-23</a>. </li> <li id="_note-15"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-15">^</a> <a class="external text" title="http://biotech.law.lsu.edu/cphl/history/articles/pasteur.htm#paperII" rel="nofollow" href="http://biotech.law.lsu.edu/cphl/history/articles/pasteur.htm#paperII~~" rel="nofollow~~">Pasteur's Papers on the Germ Theory</a>. LSU Law Center's Medical and Public Health Law Site, Historic Public Health Articles. Retrieved on <a title="2006" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006">2006</a>-<a title="November 23" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November_23">11-23</a>. </li> <li id="_note-16"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-16">^</a> <a class="external text" title="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1905/" rel="nofollow" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1905/~~" rel="nofollow~~">The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1905</a>. Nobelprize.org. Retrieved on <a title="2006" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006">2006</a>-<a title="November 22" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November_22">11-22</a>. </li>

<li id="_note-17"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-17">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">O'Brien S, Goedert J (1996). "HIV causes AIDS: Koch's postulates fulfilled". Curr Opin Immunol 8 (5): 613–18. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8902385" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8902385">PMID 8902385</a>.</cite> </li>

<li id="_note-18"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-18">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Thurston A (2000). "Of blood, inflammation and gunshot wounds: the history of the control of sepsis". Aust N Z J Surg 70 (12): 855-61. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11167573" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11167573">PMID 11167573</a>.</cite> </li>

<li id="_note-19"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-19">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Schwartz R (2004). "Paul Ehrlich's magic bullets". N Engl J Med 350 (11): 1079–80. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15014180" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15014180">PMID 15014180</a>.</cite> </li>

<li id="_note-20"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-20">^</a> <a class="external text" title="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1908/ehrlich-bio.html" rel="nofollow" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1908/ehrlich-bio.html~~" rel="nofollow~~">Biography of Paul Ehrlich</a>. Nobelprize.org. Retrieved on <a title="2006" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006">2006</a>-<a title="November 26" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/November_26">11-26</a>. </li>

<li id="_note-21"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-21">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Woese C, Fox G (1977). "Phylogenetic structure of the prokaryotic domain: the primary kingdoms". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 74 (11): 5088–90. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/270744" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/270744">PMID 270744</a>.</cite> </li>

<li id="_note-Woese"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-Woese_0">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Woese C, Kandler O, Wheelis M (1990). "<a class="external text" title="http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/87/12/4576" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/87/12/4576~~" rel="nofollow~~">Towards a natural system of organisms: proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya</a>". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 87 (12): 4576–79. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2112744" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2112744">PMID 2112744</a>.</cite> </li> <li id="_note-22"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-22">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Schopf J (1994). "<a class="external text" title="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=44277&blobtype=pdf" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=44277&blobtype=pdf~~" rel="nofollow~~">Disparate rates, differing fates: tempo and mode of evolution changed from the Precambrian to the Phanerozoic</a>". Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 91 (15): 6735–42. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8041691" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8041691">PMID 8041691</a>.</cite> </li>

<li id="_note-23"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-23">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">DeLong E, Pace N (2001). "Environmental diversity of bacteria and archaea". Syst Biol 50 (4): 470–78. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12116647" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12116647">PMID 12116647</a>.</cite> </li>

<li id="_note-24"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-24">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Brown JR, Doolittle WF (1997). "<a class="external text" title="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=9409149" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=9409149~~" rel="nofollow~~">Archaea and the prokaryote-to-eukaryote transition</a>". Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 61 (4): 456-502. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9409149" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9409149">PMID 9409149</a>.</cite> </li>

<li id="_note-25"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-25">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Di Giulio M (2003). "The universal ancestor and the ancestor of bacteria were hyperthermophiles". J Mol Evol 57 (6): 721–30. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14745541" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14745541">PMID 14745541</a>.</cite> </li>

<li id="_note-26"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-26">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Battistuzzi F, Feijao A, Hedges S. "<a class="external text" title="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=15535883" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=15535883~~" rel="nofollow~~">A genomic timescale of prokaryote evolution: insights into the origin of methanogenesis, phototrophy, and the colonization of land.</a>". BMC Evol Biol 4: 44. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15535883" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15535883">PMID 15535883</a>.</cite> </li>

<li id="_note-27"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-27">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Poole A, Penny D (2007). "Evaluating hypotheses for the origin of eukaryotes". Bioessays 29 (1): 74–84. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17187354" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17187354">PMID 17187354</a>.</cite> </li>

<li id="_note-Dyall"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-Dyall_0">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Dyall S, Brown M, Johnson P (2004). "Ancient invasions: from endosymbionts to organelles". Science 304 (5668): 253–7. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15073369" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15073369">PMID 15073369</a>.</cite> </li>

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<li id="_note-119"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-119">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Salminen S, Gueimonde M, Isolauri E (2005). "<a class="external text" title="http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/content/full/135/5/1294" rel="nofollow" href="http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/content/full/135/5/1294~~" rel="nofollow~~">Probiotics that modify disease risk</a>". J Nutr 135 (5): 1294–8. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15867327" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15867327">PMID 15867327</a>.</cite> </li>

<li id="_note-120"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-120">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Fish D. "Optimal antimicrobial therapy for sepsis". Am J Health Syst Pharm 59 Suppl 1: S13–9. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11885408" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11885408">PMID 11885408</a>.</cite> </li>

<li id="_note-121"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-121">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Belland R, Ouellette S, Gieffers J, Byrne G (2004). "Chlamydia pneumoniae and atherosclerosis". Cell Microbiol 6 (2): 117–27. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14706098" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14706098">PMID 14706098</a>.</cite> </li>

<li id="_note-122"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-122">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Heise E. "<a class="external text" title="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=1568899&blobtype=pdf" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=1568899&blobtype=pdf~~" rel="nofollow~~">Diseases associated with immunosuppression</a>". Environ Health Perspect 43: 9–19. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7037390" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7037390">PMID 7037390</a>.</cite> </li>

<li id="_note-Saiman"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-Saiman_0">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Saiman, L. "Microbiology of early CF lung disease". Paediatr Respir Rev.volume=5 Suppl A: S367–369.</cite> <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14980298" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14980298">PMID 14980298</a> </li>

<li id="_note-123"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-123">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Yonath A, Bashan A (2004). "Ribosomal crystallography: initiation, peptide bond formation, and amino acid polymerization are hampered by antibiotics". Annu Rev Microbiol 58: 233–51. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15487937" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15487937">PMID 15487937</a>.</cite> </li>

<li id="_note-124"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-124">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Khachatourians G (1998). "<a class="external text" title="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=9835883" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=9835883~~" rel="nofollow~~">Agricultural use of antibiotics and the evolution and transfer of antibiotic-resistant bacteria</a>". CMAJ 159 (9): 1129–36. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9835883" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9835883">PMID 9835883</a>.</cite> </li>

<li id="_note-125"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-125">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Johnson M, Lucey J (2006). "Major technological advances and trends in cheese". J Dairy Sci 89 (4): 1174–8. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16537950" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16537950">PMID 16537950</a>.</cite> </li>

<li id="_note-126"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-126">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Hagedorn S, Kaphammer B (1994). "Microbial biocatalysis in the generation of flavor and fragrance chemicals". Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 48: 773-800. <a title="Digital object identifier" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" title="http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.mi.48.100194.004013" rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.mi.48.100194.004013~~" rel="nofollow~~">10.1146/annurev.mi.48.100194.004013</a>. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7826026" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7826026">PMID 7826026</a>.</cite> </li>

<li id="_note-127"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-127">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Cohen Y (2002). "Bioremediation of oil by marine microbial mats". Int Microbiol 5 (4): 189–93. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12497184" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12497184">PMID 12497184</a>.</cite> </li>

<li id="_note-128"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-128">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Neves LC, Miyamura TT, Moraes DA, Penna TC, Converti A (2006). "Biofiltration methods for the removal of phenolic residues". Appl. Biochem. Biotechnol. 129-132: 130-52. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16915636" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16915636">PMID 16915636</a>.</cite> </li>

<li id="_note-131"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-131">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Bozsik A (2006). "Susceptibility of adult Coccinella septempunctata (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) to insecticides with different modes of action". Pest Manag Sci 62 (7): 651–4. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16649191" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16649191">PMID 16649191</a>.</cite> </li>

<li id="_note-132"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-132">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Chattopadhyay A, Bhatnagar N, Bhatnagar R (2004). "Bacterial insecticidal toxins". Crit Rev Microbiol 30 (1): 33–54. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15116762" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15116762">PMID 15116762</a>.</cite> </li>

<li id="_note-133"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-133">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Serres M, Gopal S, Nahum L, Liang P, Gaasterland T, Riley M (2001). "<a class="external text" title="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=11574054" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=11574054~~" rel="nofollow~~">A functional update of the Escherichia coli K-12 genome</a>". Genome Biol 2 (9): RESEARCH0035. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11574054" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11574054">PMID 11574054</a>.</cite> </li>

<li id="_note-134"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-134">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Almaas E, Kovács B, Vicsek T, Oltvai Z, Barabási A (2004). "Global organization of metabolic fluxes in the bacterium Escherichia coli". Nature 427 (6977): 839–43. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14985762" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14985762">PMID 14985762</a>.</cite> </li>

<li id="_note-135"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-135">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Reed JL, Vo TD, Schilling CH, Palsson BO (2003). "An expanded genome-scale model of Escherichia coli K-12 (iJR904 GSM/GPR)". Genome Biol. 4 (9): R54. <a title="Digital object identifier" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" title="http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/gb-2003-4-9-r54" rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/gb-2003-4-9-r54~~" rel="nofollow~~">10.1186/gb-2003-4-9-r54</a>. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12952533" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12952533">PMID 12952533</a>.</cite> </li>

<li id="_note-136"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-136">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Walsh G (2005). "Therapeutic insulins and their large-scale manufacture". Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 67 (2): 151–9. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15580495" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15580495">PMID 15580495</a>.</cite> </li>

<li id="_note-137"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria#_ref-137">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Graumann K, Premstaller A (2006). "Manufacturing of recombinant therapeutic proteins in microbial systems". Biotechnol J 1 (2): 164–86. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16892246" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16892246">PMID 16892246</a>.</cite> </li>

<li><cite class="book" style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Martinko JM, Madigan MT (2005). Brock Biology of Microorganisms, 11th ed., Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice Hall. <a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0131443291">ISBN 0-13-144329-1</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brock+Biology+of+Microorganisms&rft.au=Martinko+JM%2C+Madigan+MT&rft.edition=11th+ed.&rft.pub=Prentice+Hall&rft.place=Englewood+Cliffs%2C+N.J&rft.isbn=0-13-144329-1">  </li>

<li><cite class="book" style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Holt JC, Bergey DH (1994). Bergey's manual of determinative bacteriology, 9th ed., Baltimore: Williams & Wilkins. <a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0683006037">ISBN 0-683-00603-7</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bergey%27s+manual+of+determinative+bacteriology&rft.au=Holt+JC%2C+Bergey+DH&rft.edition=9th+ed.&rft.pub=Williams+%26+Wilkins&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.isbn=0-683-00603-7">  </li>

<li><cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Hugenholtz P, Goebel BM, Pace NR (1998). "<a class="external text" title="http://jb.asm.org/cgi/content/full/180/18/4765?view=full&pmid=9733676" rel="nofollow" href="http://jb.asm.org/cgi/content/full/180/18/4765?view=full&pmid=9733676~~" rel="nofollow~~">Impact of culture-independent studies on the emerging phylogenetic view of bacterial diversity</a>". J Bacteriol 180 (18): 4765–74. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9733676" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9733676">PMID 9733676</a>.</cite> </li>

<li><cite class="book" style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Funke BR, Tortora GJ, Case CL (2004). Microbiology: an introduction, 8th ed,, San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings. <a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0805376143">ISBN 0-8053-7614-3</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Microbiology%3A+an+introduction&rft.au=Funke+BR%2C+Tortora+GJ%2C+Case+CL&rft.edition=8th+ed%2C&rft.pub=Benjamin+Cummings&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.isbn=0-8053-7614-3">  </li>

</ul>

<h2>External links</h2>

<a class="external text" title="http://www.dsmz.de/bactnom/bactname.htm" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.dsmz.de/bactnom/bactname.htm~~" rel="nofollow~~">Bacterial Nomenclature Up-To-Date from DSMZ</a>

<ul>

<li><a class="external text" title="http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc99/4_17_99/fob5.htm" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.sciencenews.org/pages/sn_arc99/4_17_99/fob5.htm~~" rel="nofollow~~">The largest bacteria</a> </li> <li><a class="external text" title="http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Eubacteria&contgroup=Life_on_Earth" rel="nofollow" href="http://tolweb.org/tree?group=Eubacteria&contgroup=Life_on_Earth~~" rel="nofollow~~">Tree of Life: Eubacteria</a> </li> <li><a class="external text" title="http://www.rowland.harvard.edu/labs/bacteria/index_movies.html" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.rowland.harvard.edu/labs/bacteria/index_movies.html~~" rel="nofollow~~">Videos</a> of bacteria swimming and tumbling, use of optical tweezers and other videos. </li> <li><a class="external text" title="http://www.stephenjaygould.org/library/gould_bacteria.html" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.stephenjaygould.org/library/gould_bacteria.html~~" rel="nofollow~~">Planet of the Bacteria</a> by <a title="Stephen Jay Gould" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould">Stephen Jay Gould</a> </li> <li><a class="external text" title="http://www.textbookofbacteriology.net/" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.textbookofbacteriology.net/~~" rel="nofollow~~">On-line text book on bacteriology</a> </li> <li><a class="external text" title="http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/trun/artwork/Animations/Overview/overview.html" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/trun/artwork/Animations/Overview/overview.html~~" rel="nofollow~~">Animated guide to bacterial cell structure.</a> </li>

</ul>

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