<p><strong>The definition of <font size="3">Biology</font></strong>(from Greek:&nbspbeta;&Icirc;&macr;&omicron;&sigmaf;, <em>bio</em>, &quot;life&quot;; and &lambda;&Iuml;Œ&gamma;&omicron;&sigmaf;, <em>logos<br /em>The scientific , &quot;knowledge&quot;) is the study of life. [[What is biology?]]&nbsp;<br />Biology is an information science that is close to computer science and mathematics. &nbsp;Biologists collect information through experiments on how molecules pass signals and regulate genetic elements through feedback systems.&nbsp;<br /><br />The outcomes are usually databases and new gene markers and drug targets. The purpose of biology is to understand life in terms of how they process information in the physical world. The major application of biology is medicine. Therefore, biology is sometimes called the basic sience of medicine.<br /><br />The early 2000s is was at the point where the conventional views of molecular biology change changed rapidly with new views. One of them is the transition from the object-oriented understanding of biology to an interaction-oriented understanding. &nbsp;<br />Many scientists have predicted the reverse of reductionism in biologyin the past, and such interaction-based molecular research is the starting point of a holistic way of performing biology. &nbsp;<br />The most appropriate and general name of such a non-reductionist methodology of doing biology is perhaps systems biologyomics. We now have enough individual objects in biology to look at the architecture of the biological information object networks. --&nbsp;[[Network biology]] and [[systems biology]] are sub branches of biology where [[User:J|Jomics]] 21:04paradigm is applied.<br /><br />It contains such topics as classifying the various forms of organisms, how species come into existence, and the interactions they have with each other and with the natural environment. Biology encompasses a broad spectrum of academic fields that are often viewed as independent disciplines. However, 26 Feb 2005 together they address phenomena related to living organisms (KSTbiological phenomena) over a wide range of disciplines, many of which, for example, botany, zoology, and medicine are considered ancient fields of study.</p><p>Biology as a unified science was first developed in the nineteenth century, as scientists discovered that all living things shared certain fundamental characteristics and were best studied as a whole. Over a million papers are published annually in a wide array of biology and medicine journals,<br /sup class="reference" id="_ref-0">[[생정보학1]] 혹은 생명정보학</sup> and biology is a standard subject of instruction at schools and universities around the world.</p><p>As such a vast field, biology is divided into a number of disciplines. The old divisions by type of organism remains with subjects such as botany encompassing the study of plants, zoology with the study of animals, and microbiology as the study of microorganisms. The field may also be divided based on the scale at which it is studied: biochemistry examines the fundamental chemistry of life; cellular biology examines the basic building block of all life, the cell; Physiology examines the mechanical and physical functions of an organism; and ecology examines how various organisms interrelate. Applied fields of biology such as medicine are more complex and involve many specialized sub-disciplines.</p><h2><span class="mw-headline">Foundations of modern biology</span></h2><p>Biology is a branch of science that characterizes and investigates living organisms utilizing the scientific method. There are four broad unifying principles of biology:</p><ol> <li>Cell theory. All living organisms are composed of at least one cell and the cell is the basic unit of function in all organisms. In addition, the chemical composition of all cells in all organisms is similar, and emerge from preexisting cells through cell division or mitosis. </li> <li>Evolution. Through natural selection or genetic drift, a population's inherited traits change from generation to generation. </li> <li>Gene theory. A living organism's traits are encoded into DNA that is the fundamental component of genes. In addition, genes transfer an organism's traits from one generation to the next. </li> <li>Homeostasis. The physiological processes that allow an organism to maintain its internal environment notwithstanding its external environment. </li></ol><h3><span class="mw-headline">Cell Theory</span></h3><p>Cell theory states that all living things are composed of one or more cells as well as the secreted products of those cells, for example, plasma, extracellular matrix, and bone. These cells arise from other cells through cell division, and that in multicellular organisms, every cell in the organism's body has been produced from the single cell in a fertilized egg.</p><p>&nbsp;</p><h3><span class="mw-headline">[[분자생물학Evolution]]</span></h3><p>A central organizing concept in biology is that all life has a common origin and has changed and developed through the process of the theory of evolution (see Common descent). This has led to the striking similarity of units and processes discussed in the previous section. Charles Darwin established evolution as a viable theory by articulating its driving force, natural selection (Alfred Russel Wallace is recognized as the co-discoverer of this concept). Darwin theorized that species and breeds developed through the processes of natural selection as well as by artificial selection or selective breeding.Genetic drift was embraced as an additional mechanism of evolutionary development in the modern synthesis of the theory.</p><p>생명현상을 연구하는 과학The evolutionary history of a species&mdash; which describes the characteristics of the various species from which it descended&mdash; together with its genealogical relationship to every other species is called its phylogeny. Widely varied approaches to biology generate information about phylogeny. These include the comparisons of DNA sequences conducted within molecular biology or genomics, and comparisons of fossils or other records of ancient organisms in paleontology. Biologists organize and analyze evolutionary relationships through various methods, including phylogenetics, phenetics, and cladistics (The major events in the evolution of life, as biologists currently understand them, are summarized on this evolutionary timeline).<br clear="right" /></p><p>Ever since its articulation by Darwin and Wallace, the theory of evolution by natural selection has come under attack by people who disagree with scientific findings or interpretations regarding the origins and diversity of life, generally favoring instead religious explanations. See Creation-evolution controversy for more information. 생물학은 [[과학]]의 한 핵심 분야로서</p><p>Up into the 19th century, it was commonly believed that life forms could appear spontaneously under certain conditions (see abiogenesis). This misconception was challenged by William Harvey's diction that &quot;all life [[과학적방법론is]]을 적용하여 지구상 및 우주에서의 모든 from [[생명체an]]와 생명현상을 체계적으로 분석 이해하는 것을 목표로한다egg&quot; (from the Latin &quot;Omne vivum ex ovo&quot;), a foundational concept of modern biology. It simply means that there is an unbroken continuity of life from its initial origin to the present time.</p><p>A group of organisms shares a common descent if they share a common ancestor. All organisms on the Earth have been and are descended from a common ancestor or an ancestral gene pool. This last universal common ancestor of all organisms is believed to have appeared about 3.5 billion years ago. Biologists generally regard the universality of the genetic code as definitive evidence in favor of the theory of universal common descent (UCD) for all bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes (see: origin of life). [[단백질]]</p><p>&nbsp;</p><h3><span class="mw-headline">Gene theory</span></h3><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><img width="180" height="260" class="thumbimage" alt="Schematic representation of DNA, [[the primary genetic material." longdesc="/wiki/Image:DNA-structure-and-bases.png" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/DNA-structure-and-bases.png/180px-DNA-structure-and-bases.png" /><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify" style="float: right;"><img width="15" height="11" alt="" src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" /></div>Schematic representation of DNA]], [[RNA]]등의 [[세포]]내외 생물 분자를 주로다룬다the primary genetic material.</div></div><em></em></div><p>While organisms may vary immensely in appearance, habitat, and behaviour it is a central principle of biology that all life shares certain universal fundamentals. A key feature is reproduction or replication. According to <a href="javascript:void(0);/*1256199523180*/">paper writing</a>, the entity being replicated, the replicator, in the past was considered to be the organism during the time of Darwin, but since the 1970s increasingly reduced to the scale of molecules. 생물학은 <sup class="reference" id="_ref-1">[[의술2]]과 [[의예]]의 순수 [[학문]]이다</sup> All known life has a carbon-based biochemistry, carbon is the fundamental building block of the molecules that make up all known living things. 따라서 [[사람]]의 총체적 생명현상을 연구하는 학문이기도 하다Similarly water is the basic solvent for all known living organisms. 현대 생물학은 정보처리학문으로의 전환 단계에 있으며While all these things are true of all organisms observed on Earth, 미래에는 [[생정보학]]으로 가장 간료하게 인식 연구 될것으 전망된다in theory alternative forms of life could exist and some scientists do look at alternative biochemistry.</p><p>All terrestrial organisms use DNA and RNA-based genetic mechanisms to hold genetic information. 이것은 생물학이 근본적으로 정보처리학문이기 때문이다Another universal principle is that all observed organisms with the exception of viruses are made of cells. 생물학의 모든 문제는 [[세포]]가 정보와 에너지를 어떻게 처리하는가에 귀착한다Similarly, all organisms share common developmental processes. </p>

      <div idh3><span class="kbektt12835" style="overflow:auto;height:1px;mw-headline">Homeostasis</span></h3><p>[[http://wwwHomeostasis]] is the ability of an open system to regulate its internal environment to maintain a stable condition by means of multiple dynamic equilibrium adjustments controlled by interrelated regulation mechanisms.carookeeAll living organisms, whether unicellular or multicellular, exhibit homeostasis.com/forum/retau/ buy ambien][http://wwwHomeostasis manifests itself at the cellular level through the maintenance of a stable internal acidity (pH); at the organismic level, warm-blooded animals maintain a constant internal body temperature; and at the level of the ecosystem, as when atmospheric carbon dioxide levels rise and plants are theoretically able to grow healthier and remove more of the gas from the atmosphere.carookeeTissues and organs can also maintain homeostasis.com</forump><p><br /sokos></ buy adipex]p>[http:<p>&nbsp;</p><h2><span class="mw-headline">Scope</www.carookee.com/forumspan></darrik/ buy xenical]h2>[http://www<p>Biology has become such a vast research enterprise that it is not generally regarded as a single discipline, but a number do assist in understanding the genetic variation of a population; and physiology borrows extensively from cell biology in describing the function of organ systems.carookeeEthology and comparative psychology extend biology to the analysis of animal behavior and mental characteristics, whilst Evolutionary psychology proposes that the field of psychology, including in regard to humans, is a branch of biology.com</forum/spokido/ ambien rx]p>[http:<h3><span class="mw-headline">Common descent</span></wwwh3><p>Up into the 19th century, it was believed that life forms were being continuously created under certain conditions (see spontaneous generation).carookee.com/forum/trikos/ free ringtonesThis misconception was challenged by William Harvey's diction that &quot;all life [is]from [http://hyperan] egg&quot; (from the Latin &quot;Omne vivum ex ovo&quot;), a foundational concept of modern biology.vcsunIt simply means that there is an unbroken continuity of life from its initial origin to the present time.org</HyperNews/battias/get/coms301/f2002/discussion/138p><p>A group of organisms shares a common descent if they share a common ancestor.html buy ambien][http://hyperAll organisms on the Earth have been and are descended from a common ancestor or an ancestral gene pool.vcsunThis last universal common ancestor of all organisms is believed to have appeared about 3.org/HyperNews/battias/get/coms301/f2002/discussion/1395 billion years ago.html buy adipex][httpBiologists generally regard the universality of the genetic code as definitive evidence in favor of the theory of universal common descent (UCD) for all bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes (see:origin of life).</p><p>&nbsp;</hyper.vcsun.org/HyperNewsp><h3><span class="mw-headline">Structure of life</battiasspan></get/coms301/f2002/discussion/140.html order phentermine]h3>[http:<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="WIDTH: 302px"><img class="thumbimage" height="182" alt="Schematic of typical animal cell depicting the various organelles and structures." width="300" longdesc="/wiki/hyperImage:Biological_cell.vcsun.org/HyperNews/battias/get/coms301/f2002/discussion/141.html buy carisoprodol][svg" src="http://hyperupload.vcsunwikimedia.org/HyperNewswikipedia/battiascommons/getthumb/coms3011/f20021a/discussion/142Biological_cell.html buy xenical][http:svg//hyper300px-Biological_cell.vcsunsvg.orgpng" /HyperNews/battias/get/coms301/f2002/discussion/143.html free ringtones]><div class="thumbcaption">[http<div class="magnify" style="FLOAT://hyper.vcsun.org/HyperNews/battias/get/coms301/f2002/discussion/144.html laminate flooring][right"><img height="11" alt="" width="15" src="http://hyperen.vcsunwikipedia.org/HyperNewsskins-1.5/battiascommon/getimages/coms301magnify-clip.png" /f2002></discussion/145div>Schematic of typical animal cell depicting the various organelles and structures.html nextel ringtones]</div></div>[http:<em></em></elitrixdiv><p>Molecular biology is the study of biology at a molecular level.net/terah/indexThis field overlaps with other areas of biology, particularly with genetics and biochemistry.php buy ambien][http://elitrixMolecular biology chiefly concerns itself with understanding the interactions between the various systems of a cell, including the interrelationship of DNA, RNA, and protein synthesis and learning how these interactions are regulated.net</skolp/index.php buy adipex]p>[http://elitrix<p>Cell biology studies the physiological properties of cells, as well as <strong>their behaviors, interactions, and environment.netThis is done</olla/indexstrong> both on a microscopic and molecular level.php buy xanax][http://elitrixCell biology researches both single-celled organisms like bacteria and specialized cells in multicellular organisms like humans.net</derit/index.php buy xenical]p>[http://elitrix<p>Understanding cell composition and how they function is fundamental to all of the biological sciences.net/eriop/indexAppreciating the similarities and differences between cell types is particularly important in the fields of cell and molecular biology.php order phentermine][http://elitrixThese fundamental similarities and differences provide a unifying theme, allowing the principles learned from studying one cell type to be extrapolated and generalized to other cell types.net</fagoo/index.php buy valium]p>[http://elitrix<p>Genetics is the science of genes, heredity, and the variation of organisms.net/travo/indexGenes encode the information necessary for synthesizing proteins, which in turn play a large role in influencing (though, in many instances, not completely determining) the final phenotype of the organism.php buy tramadol][http://wwwIn modern research, genetics provides important tools in the investigation of the function of a particular gene, or the analysis of genetic interactions.studentWithin organisms, genetic information generally is carried in chromosomes, where it is represented in the chemical structure of particular DNA molecules.virginia.edu</~macma/cgi-bin/robboardp><p>Developmental biology studies the process by which organisms grow and develop.cgi?action=displayOriginating in embryology, modern developmental biology studies the genetic control of cell growth, differentiation, and &quot;morphogenesis,&num=705 order phentermine][http://wwwquot; which is the process that gives rise to tissues, organs, and anatomy.student.virginia.eduModel organisms for developmental biology include the round worm <em>Caenorhabditis elegans</~macmaem>, the fruit fly <em>Drosophila melanogaster</cgi-binem>, the zebrafish <em>Brachydanio rerio</robboard.cgi?action=display&num=706 buy adipex][http:em>, the mouse <em>Mus musculus</em>, and the weed <em>Arabidopsis thaliana</wwwem>.student.virginia.edu</~macmap><p>&nbsp;</cgip><h3><span class="mw-binheadline">Physiology of organisms</robboard.cgi?action=displayspan></h3><p>Physiology studies the mechanical, physical, and biochemical processes of living organisms by attempting to understand how all of the structures function as a whole. The theme of &quot;structure to function&num=707 buy xenical][http://wwwquot; is central to biology.studentPhysiological studies have traditionally been divided into plant physiology and animal physiology, but the principles of physiology are universal, no matter what particular organism is being studied.virginiaFor example, what is learned about the physiology of yeast cells can also apply to human cells.edu/~macma/cgiThe field of animal physiology extends the tools and methods of human physiology to non-bin/robboardhuman species.cgi?action=display&num=708 buy cialis][http://wwwPlant physiology also borrows techniques from both fields.student.virginia.edu</~macma/cgi-bin/robboard.cgi?action=display&num=709 buy carisoprodol]p>[http://www<p>Anatomy is an important branch of physiology and considers how organ systems in animals, such as the nervous, immune, endocrine, respiratory, and circulatory systems, function and interact.studentThe study of these systems is shared with medically oriented disciplines such as neurology and immunology.virginia.edu</~macmap><p>&nbsp;</cgip><h3><span class="mw-binheadline">Diversity and evolution of organisms</robboard.cgi?actionspan></h3><div class=display&num=710 buy hydrocodone]"thumb tright">[http://cgi.chol.com/~rantrave/cgi-bin/robboard.cgi?action<div class=display&num"thumbinner" style=16333 buy ambien][http://cgi"WIDTH: 302px"><img class="thumbimage" height="148" alt="In population genetics the evolution of a population of organisms is sometimes depicted as if travelling on a fitness landscape. The arrows indicate the preferred flow of a population on the landscape, and the points A, B, and C are local optima.cholThe red ball indicates a population that moves from a very low fitness value to the top of a peak.com" width="300" longdesc="/~rantravewiki/cgiImage:Fitness-bin/robboardlandscape-cartoon.cgi?actionpng" src=display&num=16334 buy adipex]["http://cgiupload.cholwikimedia.comorg/~rantravewikipedia/cgi-bin/robboard.cgi?action=display&num=16335 buy xanax][http:commons/thumb/cgi.chol.com6/~rantrave67/cgiFitness-landscape-bin/robboardcartoon.cgi?action=display&num=16336 buy xenical][http:png//cgi300px-Fitness-landscape-cartoon.chol.compng" /~rantrave/cgi-bin/robboard.cgi?action><div class="thumbcaption"><div class=display&num"magnify" style=16337 order phentermine][http"FLOAT://www.accim.org/wboard/messages/4372.html buy ambien][right"><img height="11" alt="" width="15" src="http://wwwen.accimwikipedia.org/wboardskins-1.5/messagescommon/4373images/magnify-clip.html buy adipex][http:png" /></wwwdiv>In population genetics the evolution of a population of organisms is sometimes depicted as if travelling on a fitness landscape. The arrows indicate the preferred flow of a population on the landscape, and the points A, B, and C are local optima.accimThe red ball indicates a population that moves from a very low fitness value to the top of a peak.org</wboarddiv></messagesdiv></4374.html buy xanax]div>[http<p><em>Main articles:</em> <strong>Evolutionary biology</wwwstrong>, Biodiversity, Botany, Zoology is concerned with the origin and descent of species, as well as their change over time, and includes scientists from many taxonomically-oriented disciplines. For example, it generally involves scientists who have special training in particular organisms such as mammalogy, ornithology, or herpetology, but use those organisms as systems to answer general questions about evolution.accimEvolutionary biology is mainly based on paleontology, which uses the fossil record to answer questions about the mode and tempo of evolution, as well as the developments in areas such as population genetics and evolutionary theory.org/wboard/messagesIn the 1990s, developmental biology re-entered evolutionary biology from its initial exclusion from the modern synthesis through the study of evolutionary developmental biology. Related fields which are often considered part of evolutionary biology are phylogenetics, systematics, and taxonomy.</4375.html buy xenical]p>[http://www<p>The two major traditional taxonomically-oriented disciplines are botany and zoology. Botany is the scientific study of plants.accimBotany covers a wide range of scientific disciplines that study the growth, reproduction, metabolism, development, diseases, and evolution of plant life.org/wboard/messages/4376Zoology involves the study of animals, including the study of their physiology within the fields of anatomy and embryology.html buy cialis][http://wwwThe common genetic and developmental mechanisms of animals and plants is studied in molecular biology, molecular genetics, and developmental biology.accimThe ecology of animals is covered under behavioral ecology and other fields.org</wboardp><p>&nbsp;</messages/4377.html buy valium]p>[http:<h3><span class="mw-headline">Taxonomy</span></wwwh3><div class="messagebox cleanup metadata plainlinks"><strong>This article or section does not cite any references or sources.accim.org</wboardstrong><br /messages/4378><small>Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources.html buy tramadol][http:(help, get 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ringtones][svg" src="http://wwwupload.accimwikimedia.org/wboardwikipedia/commons/messagesthumb/4383.html laminate flooring][http:7/70/wwwPhylogenetic_tree.accimsvg/340px-Phylogenetic_tree.orgsvg.png" /wboard/messages/4385.html air purifiers]>[http://www.accim.org/wboard/messages/4387.html tankless water heaters]<div class="thumbcaption">[http<div class="magnify" style="FLOAT: right"><img height="11" alt="" width="15" src="http://wwwen.accimwikipedia.org/wboard/messages/4388skins-1.html nextel ringtones][http:5/common/www.tradi.homepages.plimages/buymagnify-ambienclip.html buy ambien][http:png" /></wwwdiv>A phylogenetic tree of all living things, based on rRNA gene data, showing the separation of the three domains bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes as described initially by Carl Woese.tradiTrees constructed with other genes are generally similar, although they may place some early-branching groups very differently, presumably owing to rapid rRNA evolution.homepagesThe exact relationships of the three domains are still being debated.pl</buy-adipex.html buy adipex]div>[http:</div></wwwdiv><p>Classification is the province of the disciplines of systematics and taxonomy.tradiTaxonomy places organisms in groups called taxa, while systematics seeks to define their relationships with each other.homepagesThis classification technique has evolved to reflect advances in cladistics and genetics, shifting the focus from physical similarities and shared characteristics to phylogenetics.pl</buy-xanax.html buy xanax]p>[http<p>Traditionally, living things have been divided into five kingdoms:</p><dl><dd>Monera -- Protista -- Fungi -- Plantae -- Animalia</www.tradi.homepages.pldd></buydl><p>However, many scientists now consider this five-xenicalkingdom system to be outdated.html buy xenical][httpModern alternative classification systems generally begin with the three-domain system://www.tradi.homepages.pl/order<sup class="reference" id="_ref-phentermine.html order phentermine2">[3][http:</sup></www.olade.homepages.pl/buy-valium.html buy valium]p>[http:<dl><dd>Archaea (originally Archaebacteria) -- Bacteria (originally Eubacteria) -- Eukaryota</dd></wwwdl><p>These domains reflect whether the cells have nuclei or not, as well as differences in the cell exteriors.olade.homepages.pl</buy-tramadolp><p>Further, each kingdom is broken down continuously until each species is separately classified.html buy tramadol][httpThe order is:</p><ol> <li>Kingdom </www.olade.homepages.pl/buy-carisoprodol.html buy carisoprodol]li>[http: <li>Phylum </li> <li>Class </www.olade.homepages.pl/buy-hydrocodone.html buy hydrocodone]li>[http: <li>Order </li> <li>Family </www.olade.homepages.plli> <li>Genus </free-ringtones.html free ringtones]li>[http: <li>Species </li></return2indiaol><p>The scientific name of an organism is obtained from its genus and species.com/HyperNewsFor example, humans would be listed as <em>Homo sapiens</getem>. <em>Homo</forumsem> would be the 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Whenever writing the scientific name of an organism, it is proper to capitalize the first letter in the genus and put all of the species in lowercase; in addition the entire term would be put in italics or underlined. The term used for classification is called taxonomy.</2146/8.html buy ambien]p>[http<p>There is also a series of intracellular parasites that are progressively &quot;less alive&quot; in terms of metabolic activity:</p><dl><dd>Viruses -- Viroids -- Prions</return2india.com/HyperNewsdd></getdl><p><br /forums/shipping/2146/9>The dominant classification system is called Linnaean taxonomy, which includes ranks and binomial nomenclature. How organisms are named is governed by international agreements such as the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN), the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN), and the International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria (ICNB). A fourth Draft BioCode was published in 1997 in an attempt to standardize naming in these three areas, but it has yet to be formally adopted.html buy xanax][http://return2indiaThe Virus cInternational Code of Virus Classification and Nomenclature (ICVCN) remains outside the BioCode.com</HyperNews/getp><p>&nbsp;</forumsp><h3><span class="mw-headline">Interactions of organisms</shippingspan></2146/10h3><p>Ecology studies the distribution and abundance of living organisms, and the interactions between organisms and their environment. The environment of an organism includes both its habitat, which can be described as the sum of local abiotic factors such as climate and ecology, as well as the other the organisms that share its habitat. Ecological systems are studied at several different levels, from individuals and populations to ecosystems and the biosphere.html buy xenical][http://return2indiaAs can be surmised, ecology is a science that draws on several disciplines.com</HyperNewsp><p>Ethology studies animal behavior (particularly of social animals such as primates and canids), and is sometimes considered a branch of zoology. Ethologists have been particularly concerned with the evolution of behavior and the understanding of behavior in terms of the theory of natural selection. In one sense, the first modern ethologist was Charles Darwin, whose book &quot;The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals&quot; influenced many ethologists.</get/forums/shipping/2146/11.html buy cialis]p>[http://return2india<p>Biogeography studies the spatial distribution of organisms on the Earth, focusing on topics like plate tectonics, climate change, dispersal and migration, and cladistics.com</HyperNews/get/forums/shipping/2146/12p><p>Every living thing interacts with other organisms and its environment. One reason that biological systems can be difficult to study is that so many different interactions with other organisms and the environment are possible, even on the smallest of scales. A microscopic bacterium responding to a local sugar gradient is responding to its environment as much as a lion is responding to its environment when it searches for food in the African savannah. For any given species, behaviors can be co-operative, aggressive, parasitic or symbiotic. 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