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Genetics

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The genetic information of organisms is contained within the chemical structure of <a title="DNA" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA">DNA</a> (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules. Individually inherited traits, corresponding to regions in the DNA sequence, are called <a title="Genes" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genes">genes</a>. Genes encode the information necessary for synthesizing <a title="Proteins" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteins">proteins</a> -- complex molecules generally responsible for enzymatic reactions, synthesis, communication and structure within a cell. DNA sequence is transcribed into an intermediate molecule called "<a title="Messenger RNA" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messenger_RNA">messenger RNA</a>", and <a title="Ribosomes" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribosomes">ribosomes</a> translate this sequence to form a chain of amino acids to form a <a title="Protein" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein">protein</a>. This process is known as the <a title="Central dogma of molecular biology" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_dogma_of_molecular_biology">central dogma of molecular biology</a>.

Although genetics plays a large role in determining the appearance and behavior of organisms, it is the interaction of genetics with the environment that determines the ultimate outcome. Thus, while <a title="Twin" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twin">identical twins</a> have the same DNA and genes, differences in their experiences during development and childhood results in different <a class="extiw" title="wiktionary:personality" href="http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/personality">personalities</a> and <a title="Fingerprint" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fingerprint">fingerprints</a>.

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<h2>History</h2>

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Morgan's observation of sex-linked inheritance of a mutation causing white eyes in <a title="Drosophila" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drosophila">Drosophila</a> led him to the hypothesis that genes are located upon chromosomes.</div>

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In the decades following rediscovery and popularization of Mendel's work, numerous experiments sought to elucidate the molecular basis of DNA. In 1910 <a title="Thomas Hunt Morgan" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan">Thomas Hunt Morgan</a> argued that genes reside on chromosomes, based observations of a sex-linked white eye mutation in fruit flies. In 1913 his student <a title="Alfred Sturtevant" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Sturtevant">Alfred Sturtevant</a> used the phenomenon of <a title="Genetic linkage" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_linkage">genetic linkage</a> and the associated recombination rates to demonstrate and map the linear arrangement of genes upon the chromosome.

The chemical structure of DNA.</div>

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<li id="_note-0"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_ref-0">^</a> <cite class="book" style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Robert C. King, Willliam D. Stansfield, Pamela K. Mulligan (2006). A Dictionary of Genetics, 7th edition. New York: Oxford University Press.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Genetics%2C+7th+edition&rft.title=A+Dictionary+of+Genetics%2C+7th+edition&rft.au=Robert+C.+King%2C+Willliam+D.+Stansfield%2C+Pamela+K.+Mulligan&rft.date=2006&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.place=New+York">  596 pages. <a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0195307615">ISBN 0-19-530761-5</a> (paper). </li>

<li id="_note-mendel">^ <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_ref-mendel_0">a</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_ref-mendel_1">b</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Mendel, G.. "Versuche über Pflanzen-Hybriden". Verh. Naturforsch. Ver. Brünn 4: 3-47.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.atitle=Versuche+%C3%BCber+Pflanzen-Hybriden&rft.title=Verh.+Naturforsch.+Ver.+Br%C3%BCnn&rft.jtitle=Verh.+Naturforsch.+Ver.+Br%C3%BCnn&rft.volume=4&rft.au=Mendel%2C+G.&rft.pages=3-47">  (in English in 1901, J. R. Hortic. Soc. 26: 1–32) </li>

<li id="_note-1"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_ref-1">^</a> <a class="external text" title="http://www.jic.ac.uk/corporate/about/bateson.htm" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.jic.ac.uk/corporate/about/bateson.htm~~" rel="nofollow~~">Online copy of William Bateson's letter to Adam Sedgwick</a> </li>

<li id="_note-bateson_genetics">^ <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_ref-bateson_genetics_0">a</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_ref-bateson_genetics_1">b</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Bateson, William (1907). "The Progress of Genetic Research". Wilks, W. (editor) Report of the Third 1906 International Conference on Genetics: Hybridization (the cross-breeding of genera or species), the cross-breeding of varieties, and general plant breeding, London: Royal Horticultural Society.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Report+of+the+Third+1906+International+Conference+on+Genetics%3A+Hybridization+%28the+cross-breeding+of+genera+or+species%29%2C+the+cross-breeding+of+varieties%2C+and+general+plant+breeding&rft.atitle=The+Progress+of+Genetic+Research&rft.au=Bateson%2C+William&rft.date=1907&rft.pub=Royal+Horticultural+Society&rft.place=London">  <dl><dd>Although the conference was titled "International Conference on Hybridisation and Plant Breeding", Wilks changed the title for publication as a result of Bateson's speech. </dd></dl></li>

<li id="_note-dna_transforming">^ <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_ref-dna_transforming_0">a</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_ref-dna_transforming_1">b</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty (1944). "Studies on the Chemical Nature of the Substance Inducing Transformation of Pneumococcal Types: Induction of Transformation by a Desoxyribonucleic Acid Fraction Isolated from Pneumococcus Type III". Journal of Experimental Medicine 79 (1): 137-58.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.atitle=Studies+on+the+Chemical+Nature+of+the+Substance+Inducing+Transformation+of+Pneumococcal+Types%3A+Induction+of+Transformation+by+a+Desoxyribonucleic+Acid+Fraction+Isolated+from+Pneumococcus+Type+III&rft.title=Journal+of+Experimental+Medicine&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Experimental+Medicine&rft.date=1944&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=1&rft.au=Avery%2C+MacLeod%2C+and+McCarty&rft.pages=137-58"> <a class="external text" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=33226" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=33226~~" rel="nofollow~~">35th anniversary reprint available</a> </li>

<li id="_note-sanger_sequencing">^ <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_ref-sanger_sequencing_0">a</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_ref-sanger_sequencing_1">b</a> Sanger F, Air GM, Barrell BG, Brown NL, Coulson AR, Fiddes CA, Hutchison CA, Slocombe PM, Smith M., Nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage phi X174 DNA, Nature. 1977 Feb 24;265(5596):687-94 </li>

<li id="_note-100_Years_Ago:_Walter_Sutton_and_the_Chromosome_Theory_of_Heredity"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_ref-100_Years_Ago:_Walter_Sutton_and_the_Chromosome_Theory_of_Heredity_0">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Ernest W. Crow and James F. Crow (2002). "<a class="external text" title="http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content/full/160/1/1" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content/full/160/1/1~~" rel="nofollow~~">100 Years Ago: Walter Sutton and the Chromosome Theory of Heredity</a>". Genetics 160.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.atitle=100+Years+Ago%3A+Walter+Sutton+and+the+Chromosome+Theory+of+Heredity&rft.title=Genetics&rft.jtitle=Genetics&rft.date=2002&rft.volume=160&rft.au=Ernest+W.+Crow+and+James+F.+Crow&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.genetics.org%2Fcgi%2Fcontent%2Ffull%2F160%2F1%2F1">  </li>

<li id="_note-2"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_ref-2">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Beadle GW, Tatum EL (1941). "Genetic control of biochemical reactions in neurospora". PNAS 27: 499-506.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.atitle=Genetic+control+of+biochemical+reactions+in+neurospora&rft.title=PNAS&rft.jtitle=PNAS&rft.date=1941&rft.volume=27&rft.au=Beadle+GW%2C+Tatum+EL&rft.pages=499-506">  </li>

<li id="_note-3"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_ref-3">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Watson JD and Crick FH (1953). "Molecular structure of nucleic acids; a structure for deoxyribose nucleic acid". Nature 171 (4356): 737-8.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.atitle=Molecular+structure+of+nucleic+acids%3B+a+structure+for+deoxyribose+nucleic+acid&rft.title=Nature&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.date=1953&rft.volume=171&rft.issue=4356&rft.au=Watson+JD+and+Crick+FH&rft.pages=737-8">  </li>

<li id="_note-5"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_ref-5">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Min Jou W, Haegeman G, Ysebaert M, Fiers W. (1972). "Nucleotide sequence of the gene coding for the bacteriophage MS2 coat protein". Nature 237 (5350): 82-8.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.atitle=Nucleotide+sequence+of+the+gene+coding+for+the+bacteriophage+MS2+coat+protein&rft.title=Nature&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.date=1972&rft.volume=237&rft.issue=5350&rft.au=Min+Jou+W%2C+Haegeman+G%2C+Ysebaert+M%2C+Fiers+W.&rft.pages=82-8">  </li>

<li id="_note-6"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_ref-6">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Fiers W et al. (1976). "Complete nucleotide-sequence of Bacteriophage MS2-RNA - primary and secondary structure of replicase gene". Nature 260: 500-507.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.atitle=Complete+nucleotide-sequence+of+Bacteriophage+MS2-RNA+-+primary+and+secondary+structure+of+replicase+gene&rft.title=Nature&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.date=1976&rft.volume=260&rft.au=Fiers+W+et+al.&rft.pages=500-507">  </li>

<li id="_note-7"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_ref-7">^</a> <a class="external free" title="http://www.genoscope.cns.fr/externe/English/Actualites/Presse/HGP/HGP_press_release-140403.pdf" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.genoscope.cns.fr/externe/English/Actualites/Presse/HGP/HGP_press_release-140403.pdf~~" rel="nofollow~~">http://www.genoscope.cns.fr/externe/English/Actualites/Presse/HGP/HGP_press_release-140403.pdf</a> </li>

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Genetics

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