Difference between revisions of "Taurine"
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| − | <p><strong>Taurine</strong>, or <strong>2-aminoethanesulfonic acid</strong>, is an | + | <p><strong>Taurine</strong>, or <strong>2-aminoethanesulfonic acid</strong>, is an organic acid. It is also a major constituent of bile and can be found in the lower intestine and in small amounts in the tissues of many animals and in humans as well.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-0"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></sup> Taurine is a derivative of the sulfur-containing (sulfhydryl) amino acid, cysteine. Taurine is one of the few known naturally occurring sulfonic acids.</p> |
| − | <p>Taurine is named after the Latin <em>taurus</em>, which means bull or ox, as it was first isolated from | + | <p>Taurine is named after the Latin <em>taurus</em>, which means bull or ox, as it was first isolated from ox bile in 1827 by German scientists Friedrich Tiedemann and Leopold Gmelin.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></sup> It is often called an amino acid, even in scientific literature,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></sup> but as it lacks a carboxyl group it is not strictly an amino acid.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-6"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></sup> It does contain a sulfonate group and may be called an amino sulfonic acid. Small polypeptides have been identified which contain taurine, but to date no aminoacyl tRNA synthetase has been identified as specifically recognizing taurine and capable of incorporating it onto a tRNA.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-7"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></sup></p> |
<p> </p> | <p> </p> | ||
<p> </p> | <p> </p> | ||
<h2><span class="mw-headline">Biosynthesis</span></h2> | <h2><span class="mw-headline">Biosynthesis</span></h2> | ||
| − | <p>The major pathway for mammalian taurine synthesis occurs in the pancreas via the cysteine sulfinic acid pathway. In this pathway, the sulfhydryl group of | + | <p>The major pathway for mammalian taurine synthesis occurs in the pancreas via the cysteine sulfinic acid pathway. In this pathway, the sulfhydryl group of cysteine is first oxidized to cysteine sulfinic acid by the enzyme cysteine dioxygenase. Cysteine sulfinic acid, in turn, is decarboxylated by sulfinoalanine decarboxylase to form hypotaurine. It is unclear whether hypotaurine is then spontaneously or enzymatically oxidized to yield taurine.</p> |
| − | <p>Taurine in the pharmaceutical and lab setting is synthesized through a combination of cysteine, | + | <p>Taurine in the pharmaceutical and lab setting is synthesized through a combination of cysteine, methionine, and vitamin E. It is naturally produced in the testicles of many mammals. Urban legends surrounding the source of taurine have included bull urine extract and bull semen. While it's true that taurine is found in both sources, it is not the source of taurine in the pharmaceutical or food industry.</p> |
<p> </p> | <p> </p> | ||
<h2><span class="mw-headline">Physiological roles</span></h2> | <h2><span class="mw-headline">Physiological roles</span></h2> | ||
<p> </p> | <p> </p> | ||
| − | <p>Taurine is | + | <p>Taurine is conjugated via its amino terminal group with chenodeoxycholic acid and cholic acid to form the bile salts sodium taurochenodeoxycholate and sodium taurocholate. The low pKa (1.5) of taurine's sulfonic acid group ensures that this moiety is negatively charged in the pH ranges normally found in the intestinal tract and thus improves the surfactant properties of the cholic acid conjugate, which can be found in many energy drinks today. Taurine crosses the blood-brain barrier<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-8"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-9"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-10"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></sup> and has been implicated in a wide array of physiological phenomena including inhibitory neurotransmission,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-11"><span>[</span>12<span>]</span></sup> long-term potentiation in the striatum/hippocampus,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-12"><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></sup> membrane stabilization,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-13"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></sup> feedback inhibition of neutrophil/macrophage respiratory burst, adipose tissue regulation and possible prevention of obesity,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-14"><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-15"><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></sup> calcium homeostasis,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-16"><span>[</span>17<span>]</span></sup> recovery from osmotic shock,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-17"><span>[</span>18<span>]</span></sup> protection against glutamate excitotoxicity<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-18"><span>[</span>19<span>]</span></sup> and prevention of epileptic seizures.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-19"><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></sup> It also acts as an antioxidant and protects against toxicity of various substances (such as lead and cadmium).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-20"><span>[</span>21<span>]</span></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-21"><span>[</span>22<span>]</span></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-22"><span>[</span>23<span>]</span></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-23"><span>[</span>24<span>]</span></sup> Additionally, supplementation with taurine has been shown to prevent oxidative stress induced by exercise.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-24"><span>[</span>25<span>]</span></sup></p> |
| − | <p> | + | <p>It is believed that prematurely born infants lack the enzymes needed to convert cystathionine to cysteine and may therefore become deficient in taurine. Thus, taurine is thought to be a dietary essential nutrient in these individuals and has been added to many infant formulas as a measure of prudence, since the early 1980s. However, this practice has never been rigorously studied, and as such it has yet to be proven to be beneficial, or even necessary.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-25"><span>[</span>26<span>]</span></sup></p> |
| − | < | + | <p>There is also evidence that taurine is beneficial for adult human blood pressure and possibly, the alleviation of other cardiovascular ailments (in humans suffering essential hypertension, taurine supplementation resulted in measurable decreases in blood pressure).<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-26"><span>[</span>27<span>]</span></sup> In a recent 2008 study, taurine has been shown to reduce the secretion of apolipoprotein B100 and lipids in HepG2 cells.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-27"><span>[</span>28<span>]</span></sup> High concentrations of serum lipids and apolipoprotein B100 (essential structural component of VLDL and LDL) are major risk factors of atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease. Hence, it is possible that taurine supplementation is beneficial for the prevention of these diseases. In a 2003 study, Zhang et al. have demonstrated the hypocholesterolemic (blood cholesterol-lowering) effect of dietary taurine in young overweight adults. Furthermore, they reported that body weight also reduced significantly in the taurine supplemented group.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-28"><span>[</span>29<span>]</span></sup> These findings are consistent with animal studies.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-29"><span>[</span>30<span>]</span></sup> Taurine has also been shown to help people with congestive heart failure by increasing the force and effectiveness of heart-muscle contractions.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-30"><span>[</span>31<span>]</span></sup></p> |
| − | <p>Taurine | + | <p>Taurine levels were found to be significantly lower in vegans than in a control group on a standard American diet. Plasma taurine was 78% of control values, and urinary taurine 29%.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-31"><span>[</span>32<span>]</span></sup></p> |
| − | <p> | + | <p>In the cell, taurine keeps potassium and magnesium inside the cell while keeping excessive sodium out. In this sense it works like a diuretic. But unlike prescription diuretics, it is not a cellular poison. Because it aids the movement of potassium, sodium, and calcium in and out of the cell, taurine has been used as a supplementation for epileptics as well as for people who have uncontrollable facial twitches.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-32"><span>[</span>33<span>]</span></sup></p> |
| − | < | + | <p>According to animal studies, taurine produces anxiolytic effect and may act as a modulator or anti-anxiety agent in the central nervous system.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-33"><span>[</span>34<span>]</span></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-34"><span>[</span>35<span>]</span></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-35"><span>[</span>36<span>]</span></sup></p> |
| − | + | <p>Taurine is necessary for normal skeletal muscle functioning. This was shown by a 2004 study,<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-36"><span>[</span>37<span>]</span></sup> using mice with a genetic taurine deficiency. They had a nearly complete depletion of skeletal and cardiac muscle taurine levels. These mice had a reduction of more than 80% of exercise capacity compared to control mice. The authors expressed themselves as "surprised" that cardiac function showed as largely normal (given various other studies about effects of taurine on the heart).</p> | |
| − | < | + | <p>Studies have shown that taurine can influence (and possibly reverse) defects in nerve blood flow, motor nerve conduction velocity, and nerve sensory thresholds in experimental diabetic neuropathic rats.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-PubMed_16624563_37-0"><span>[</span>38<span>]</span></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-PubMed_11259114_38-0"><span>[</span>39<span>]</span></sup> In another study on diabetic rats, taurine significantly decreased weight and decreased blood sugar in these animal models.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Japanese_rats_39-0"><span>[</span>40<span>]</span></sup> Likewise, a 2008 study demonstrated that taurine administration to diabetic rabbits resulted in 30% decrease in serum glucose levels.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-40"><span>[</span>41<span>]</span></sup> According to the single study on human subjects, daily administration of 1.5g taurine had no significant effect on insulin secretion or insulin sensitivity.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-41"><span>[</span>42<span>]</span></sup> However it is possible that an effect may occur at higher dosages. There is evidence that taurine may exert a beneficial effect in preventing diabetes-associated microangiopathy and tubulointerstitial injury in diabetic nephropathy.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-42"><span>[</span>43<span>]</span></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-43"><span>[</span>44<span>]</span></sup> Taurine acts as a glycation inhibitor. Studies have shown that taurine treated diabetic rats had a decrease in the formation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) and AGEs content.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-44"><span>[</span>45<span>]</span></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-45"><span>[</span>46<span>]</span></sup></p> |
| − | + | <p>Lately, cosmetic compositions containing taurine have been introduced, possibly due to its antifibrotic properties. It has been shown that taurine acts as a TGFB1 inhibitor.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-46"><span>[</span>47<span>]</span></sup> It also helps to maintain skin hydration.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-47"><span>[</span>48<span>]</span></sup></p> | |
| − | + | <p>Taurine is also used in some contact lens solutions.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-48"><span>[</span>49<span>]</span></sup></p> | |
| − | <p> | + | <p> </p> |
<h2><span class="mw-headline">Taurine and cats</span></h2> | <h2><span class="mw-headline">Taurine and cats</span></h2> | ||
| − | <p>Taurine is an essential dietary requirement for feline health, as cats cannot synthesize the compound. The absence of taurine causes a cat's | + | <p>Taurine is an essential dietary requirement for feline health, as cats cannot synthesize the compound. The absence of taurine causes a cat's retina to slowly degenerate, causing eye problems and (eventually) irreversible blindness — a condition known as central retinal degeneration (CRD),<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-49"><span>[</span>50<span>]</span></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-50"><span>[</span>51<span>]</span></sup> as well as hair loss and tooth decay. It was discovered in 1987 that taurine deficiency can also cause feline dilated cardiomyopathy.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-51"><span>[</span>52<span>]</span></sup> Unlike CRD, the condition is reversible with supplementation. Taurine is now a requirement of the Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) and any dry or wet food product labeled approved by the AAFCO should have a minimum of 0.1% taurine in dry food and 0.2% in wet food.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-52"><span>[</span>53<span>]</span></sup></p> |
| − | <p> | + | <p> </p> |
<h2><span class="mw-headline">Taurine and bird development</span></h2> | <h2><span class="mw-headline">Taurine and bird development</span></h2> | ||
| − | <p>Recent research has provided evidence that taurine is essential in early bird development of | + | <p>Recent research has provided evidence that taurine is essential in early bird development of passerines. Many passerines, regardless of spider availability, seek out many taurine-rich spiders to feed their young particularly in their youngest stages of life. Researchers later compared the behaviors and development of birds fed a taurine-supplemented diet to a control diet and found that juveniles that were fed taurine-rich diets as neonates were much larger risk takers and more adept at spatial learning tasks.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Arnold2007_53-0"><span>[</span>54<span>]</span></sup></p> |
| − | <p> | + | <p> </p> |
<h2><span class="mw-headline">Synthesis and production</span></h2> | <h2><span class="mw-headline">Synthesis and production</span></h2> | ||
| − | <p>In 1993, approximately 5,000–6,000 t. of taurine was produced; 50% for pet food manufacture, 50% in pharmaceutical applications.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-kirk_54-0 | + | <p>In 1993, approximately 5,000–6,000 t. of taurine was produced; 50% for pet food manufacture, 50% in pharmaceutical applications.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-kirk_54-0"><span>[</span>55<span>]</span></sup> Synthetic taurine is obtained from isethionic acid (2-hydroxyethanesulfonic acid), which in turn is obtained from the reaction of ethylene oxide with aqueous sodium bisulfite.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-55"><span>[</span>56<span>]</span></sup> Another approach is the reaction of aziridine with sulfurous acid. This leads directly to taurine.<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources since January 2008" style="WHITE-SPACE: nowrap">[<em>citation needed</em>]</span></sup></p> |
<p> </p> | <p> </p> | ||
<h2><span class="mw-headline">As a functional food</span></h2> | <h2><span class="mw-headline">As a functional food</span></h2> | ||
| − | <p>Taurine is used as a | + | <p>Taurine is used as a functional food in many energy drinks and energy products<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-56"><span>[</span>57<span>]</span></sup> Despite being present in many energy foods, it has not been proven to be energy-giving. A study of mice hereditarily unable to transport taurine suggests that it is needed for proper maintenance and functioning of skeletal muscles.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-57"><span>[</span>58<span>]</span></sup> Additionally, it has been proven effective in removing fatty liver deposits in humans, preventing liver disease, and reducing cirrhosis in rats.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-58"><span>[</span>59<span>]</span></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-59"><span>[</span>60<span>]</span></sup></p> |
| − | <p> | + | <p> </p> |
<h2><span class="mw-headline">References</span></h2> | <h2><span class="mw-headline">References</span></h2> | ||
<div class="references-small references-column-count references-column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; column-count: 2"> | <div class="references-small references-column-count references-column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; column-count: 2"> | ||
<ol class="references"> | <ol class="references"> | ||
| − | + | <li id="cite_note-0"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine#cite_ref-0">^</a></strong> <cite class="" id=" | |
</ol> | </ol> | ||
</div> | </div> | ||
Latest revision as of 01:32, 14 March 2009
Taurine, or 2-aminoethanesulfonic acid, is an organic acid. It is also a major constituent of bile and can be found in the lower intestine and in small amounts in the tissues of many animals and in humans as well.[1][2] Taurine is a derivative of the sulfur-containing (sulfhydryl) amino acid, cysteine. Taurine is one of the few known naturally occurring sulfonic acids.
Taurine is named after the Latin taurus, which means bull or ox, as it was first isolated from ox bile in 1827 by German scientists Friedrich Tiedemann and Leopold Gmelin.[3] It is often called an amino acid, even in scientific literature,[4][5][6] but as it lacks a carboxyl group it is not strictly an amino acid.[7] It does contain a sulfonate group and may be called an amino sulfonic acid. Small polypeptides have been identified which contain taurine, but to date no aminoacyl tRNA synthetase has been identified as specifically recognizing taurine and capable of incorporating it onto a tRNA.[8]
Contents
Biosynthesis
The major pathway for mammalian taurine synthesis occurs in the pancreas via the cysteine sulfinic acid pathway. In this pathway, the sulfhydryl group of cysteine is first oxidized to cysteine sulfinic acid by the enzyme cysteine dioxygenase. Cysteine sulfinic acid, in turn, is decarboxylated by sulfinoalanine decarboxylase to form hypotaurine. It is unclear whether hypotaurine is then spontaneously or enzymatically oxidized to yield taurine.
Taurine in the pharmaceutical and lab setting is synthesized through a combination of cysteine, methionine, and vitamin E. It is naturally produced in the testicles of many mammals. Urban legends surrounding the source of taurine have included bull urine extract and bull semen. While it's true that taurine is found in both sources, it is not the source of taurine in the pharmaceutical or food industry.
Physiological roles
Taurine is conjugated via its amino terminal group with chenodeoxycholic acid and cholic acid to form the bile salts sodium taurochenodeoxycholate and sodium taurocholate. The low pKa (1.5) of taurine's sulfonic acid group ensures that this moiety is negatively charged in the pH ranges normally found in the intestinal tract and thus improves the surfactant properties of the cholic acid conjugate, which can be found in many energy drinks today. Taurine crosses the blood-brain barrier[9][10][11] and has been implicated in a wide array of physiological phenomena including inhibitory neurotransmission,[12] long-term potentiation in the striatum/hippocampus,[13] membrane stabilization,[14] feedback inhibition of neutrophil/macrophage respiratory burst, adipose tissue regulation and possible prevention of obesity,[15][16] calcium homeostasis,[17] recovery from osmotic shock,[18] protection against glutamate excitotoxicity[19] and prevention of epileptic seizures.[20] It also acts as an antioxidant and protects against toxicity of various substances (such as lead and cadmium).[21][22][23][24] Additionally, supplementation with taurine has been shown to prevent oxidative stress induced by exercise.[25]
It is believed that prematurely born infants lack the enzymes needed to convert cystathionine to cysteine and may therefore become deficient in taurine. Thus, taurine is thought to be a dietary essential nutrient in these individuals and has been added to many infant formulas as a measure of prudence, since the early 1980s. However, this practice has never been rigorously studied, and as such it has yet to be proven to be beneficial, or even necessary.[26]
There is also evidence that taurine is beneficial for adult human blood pressure and possibly, the alleviation of other cardiovascular ailments (in humans suffering essential hypertension, taurine supplementation resulted in measurable decreases in blood pressure).[27] In a recent 2008 study, taurine has been shown to reduce the secretion of apolipoprotein B100 and lipids in HepG2 cells.[28] High concentrations of serum lipids and apolipoprotein B100 (essential structural component of VLDL and LDL) are major risk factors of atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease. Hence, it is possible that taurine supplementation is beneficial for the prevention of these diseases. In a 2003 study, Zhang et al. have demonstrated the hypocholesterolemic (blood cholesterol-lowering) effect of dietary taurine in young overweight adults. Furthermore, they reported that body weight also reduced significantly in the taurine supplemented group.[29] These findings are consistent with animal studies.[30] Taurine has also been shown to help people with congestive heart failure by increasing the force and effectiveness of heart-muscle contractions.[31]
Taurine levels were found to be significantly lower in vegans than in a control group on a standard American diet. Plasma taurine was 78% of control values, and urinary taurine 29%.[32]
In the cell, taurine keeps potassium and magnesium inside the cell while keeping excessive sodium out. In this sense it works like a diuretic. But unlike prescription diuretics, it is not a cellular poison. Because it aids the movement of potassium, sodium, and calcium in and out of the cell, taurine has been used as a supplementation for epileptics as well as for people who have uncontrollable facial twitches.[33]
According to animal studies, taurine produces anxiolytic effect and may act as a modulator or anti-anxiety agent in the central nervous system.[34][35][36]
Taurine is necessary for normal skeletal muscle functioning. This was shown by a 2004 study,[37] using mice with a genetic taurine deficiency. They had a nearly complete depletion of skeletal and cardiac muscle taurine levels. These mice had a reduction of more than 80% of exercise capacity compared to control mice. The authors expressed themselves as "surprised" that cardiac function showed as largely normal (given various other studies about effects of taurine on the heart).
Studies have shown that taurine can influence (and possibly reverse) defects in nerve blood flow, motor nerve conduction velocity, and nerve sensory thresholds in experimental diabetic neuropathic rats.[38][39] In another study on diabetic rats, taurine significantly decreased weight and decreased blood sugar in these animal models.[40] Likewise, a 2008 study demonstrated that taurine administration to diabetic rabbits resulted in 30% decrease in serum glucose levels.[41] According to the single study on human subjects, daily administration of 1.5g taurine had no significant effect on insulin secretion or insulin sensitivity.[42] However it is possible that an effect may occur at higher dosages. There is evidence that taurine may exert a beneficial effect in preventing diabetes-associated microangiopathy and tubulointerstitial injury in diabetic nephropathy.[43][44] Taurine acts as a glycation inhibitor. Studies have shown that taurine treated diabetic rats had a decrease in the formation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) and AGEs content.[45][46]
Lately, cosmetic compositions containing taurine have been introduced, possibly due to its antifibrotic properties. It has been shown that taurine acts as a TGFB1 inhibitor.[47] It also helps to maintain skin hydration.[48]
Taurine is also used in some contact lens solutions.[49]
Taurine and cats
Taurine is an essential dietary requirement for feline health, as cats cannot synthesize the compound. The absence of taurine causes a cat's retina to slowly degenerate, causing eye problems and (eventually) irreversible blindness — a condition known as central retinal degeneration (CRD),[50][51] as well as hair loss and tooth decay. It was discovered in 1987 that taurine deficiency can also cause feline dilated cardiomyopathy.[52] Unlike CRD, the condition is reversible with supplementation. Taurine is now a requirement of the Association of American Feed Control Officials (AAFCO) and any dry or wet food product labeled approved by the AAFCO should have a minimum of 0.1% taurine in dry food and 0.2% in wet food.[53]
Taurine and bird development
Recent research has provided evidence that taurine is essential in early bird development of passerines. Many passerines, regardless of spider availability, seek out many taurine-rich spiders to feed their young particularly in their youngest stages of life. Researchers later compared the behaviors and development of birds fed a taurine-supplemented diet to a control diet and found that juveniles that were fed taurine-rich diets as neonates were much larger risk takers and more adept at spatial learning tasks.[54]
Synthesis and production
In 1993, approximately 5,000–6,000 t. of taurine was produced; 50% for pet food manufacture, 50% in pharmaceutical applications.[55] Synthetic taurine is obtained from isethionic acid (2-hydroxyethanesulfonic acid), which in turn is obtained from the reaction of ethylene oxide with aqueous sodium bisulfite.[56] Another approach is the reaction of aziridine with sulfurous acid. This leads directly to taurine.[citation needed]
As a functional food
Taurine is used as a functional food in many energy drinks and energy products[57] Despite being present in many energy foods, it has not been proven to be energy-giving. A study of mice hereditarily unable to transport taurine suggests that it is needed for proper maintenance and functioning of skeletal muscles.[58] Additionally, it has been proven effective in removing fatty liver deposits in humans, preventing liver disease, and reducing cirrhosis in rats.[59][60]
References
- ^ Bouckenooghe T, Remacle C, Reusens B (2006). "Is taurine a functional nutrient?". Curr Opin Clin Nutr 9 (6): 728–733.
- ^ Brosnan J, Brosnan M (2006). "The sulfur-containing amino acids: an overview.". J Nutr 136 (6 Suppl): 1636S–1640S. PMID 16702333.
- ^ F. Tiedemann, L. Gmelin (1827). "Einige neue Bestandtheile der Galle des Ochsen". Annalen der Physik 85 (2): 326–337. doi:.
- ^ Stapleton, PP; L O'Flaherty, HP Redmond, and DJ Bouchier-Hayes (1998). "Host defense--a role for the amino acid taurine?". Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition 22 (1): 42–48. doi:. PMID 9437654. http://jpen.aspenjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/22/1/42. Retrieved on 2006-08-19.
- ^ Weiss, Stephen J.; Roger Klein, Adam Slivka, and Maria Wei (1982). "Chlorination of Taurine by Human Neutrophils". Journal of Clinical Investigation 70 (3): 598–607. doi:. PMID 6286728. http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=370261. Retrieved on 2006-08-19.
- ^ Kirk, Kiaran; and Julie Kirk (1993). "Volume-regulatory taurine release from a human heart cancer cell line". FEBS Letters 336 (1): 153–158. doi:.
- ^ Carey, Francis A. (2006) [1987]. Organic Chemistry (6th ed. ed.). New York: McGraw Hill. pp. 1149. ISBN 0-07-282837-4. "Amino acids are carboxylic acids that contain an amine function."
- ^ Lahdesmaki, P (1987). "Biosynthesis of taurine peptides in brain cytoplasmic fraction in vitro.". Int J Neuroscience 37 (1-2): 79–84. doi:.
- ^ Urquhart N, Perry TL, Hansen S, Kennedy J. Passage of taurine into adult mammalian brain. Journal of Neurochemistry 1974 May;22(5):871-2.
- ^ Tsuji A, Tamai I. Sodium- and chloride-dependent transport of taurine at the blood-brain barrier. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology 1996;403:385-91.
- ^ Salimäki J, Scriba G, Piepponen TP, Rautolahti N, Ahtee L. The effects of systemically administered taurine and N-pivaloyltaurine on striatal extracellular dopamine and taurine in freely moving rats. Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Archives of Pharmacology 2003 Aug;368(2):134-41.
- ^ Olive MF. Interactions between taurine and ethanol in the central nervous system. Amino Acids 2002;23(4):345-57
- ^ Dominy J Jr, Thinschmidt JS, Peris J, Dawson R Jr, Papke RL. Taurine-induced long-lasting potentiation in the rat hippocampus shows a partial dissociation from total hippocampal taurine content and independence from activation of known taurine transporters. Journal of Neurochemistry 2004 Jun;89(5):1195-205.
- ^ Birdsall TC. Therapeutic applications of taurine. Alternative Medicine Review 1998 Apr;3(2):128-36.
- ^ Ide T, Kushiro M, Takahashi Y, Shinohara K, Cha S. mRNA expression of enzymes involved in taurine biosynthesis in rat adipose tissues. Metabolism: Clinical and Experimental 2002 Sep;51(9):1191-7.
- ^ Tsuboyama-Kasaoka N, Shozawa C, Sano K, Kamei Y, Kasaoka S, Hosokawa Y, Ezaki O. Taurine (2-aminoethanesulfonic acid) deficiency creates a vicious circle promoting obesity. Endocrinology 2006 Jul;147(7):3276-84.
- ^ Foos TM, Wu JY. The role of taurine in the central nervous system and the modulation of intracellular calcium homeostasis. Neurochemical Research 2002 Feb;27(1-2):21-6.
- ^ Stummer W, Betz AL, Shakui P, Keep RF. Blood-brain barrier taurine transport during osmotic stress and in focal cerebral ischemia. Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism 1995 Sep;15(5):852-9.
- ^ Leon R, Wu H, Jin Y, Wei J, Buddhala C, Prentice H, Wu JY. Protective function of taurine in glutamate-induced apoptosis in cultured neurons. Journal of Neuroscience Research 2008 Oct 24.
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