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<p><strong><font size="3">Biology</font></strong> (from Greek: &beta;&Icirc;&macr;&omicron;&sigmaf;, <em>bio</em>, &quot;life&quot;; and &lambda;&Iuml;Œ&gamma;&omicron;&sigmaf;, <em>logos</em>, &quot;knowledge&quot;) is the study of life.&nbsp;<br />
Biology is an information science that is close to computer science and mathematics.&nbsp;Biologists collect information through experiments on how molecules pass signals and regulate genetic elements through feedback systems.&nbsp;<br />
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The outcomes are usually databases and new gene markers and drug targets. The purpose of biology is to understand life in terms of how they process information in the physical world. The major application of biology is medicine. Therefore, biology is sometimes called the basic sience of medicine.<br />
<br />
The early 2000s was at the point where the conventional views of molecular biology changed rapidly with new views. One of them is the transition from the object-oriented understanding of biology to an interaction-oriented understanding.&nbsp;<br />
Many scientists have predicted the reverse of reductionism in biology in the past, and such interaction-based molecular research is the starting point of a holistic way.&nbsp;<br />
The most appropriate and general name of such a non-reductionist methodology of doing biology is perhaps omics. We now have enough individual objects in biology to look at the architecture of the biological information object networks.&nbsp;[[Network biology]] and [[systems biology]] are sub branches of biology where [[omics]] paradigm is applied.<br />
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It contains such topics as classifying the various forms of organisms, how species come into existence, and the interactions they have with each other and with the natural environment. Biology encompasses a broad spectrum of academic fields that are often viewed as independent disciplines. However, together they address phenomena related to living organisms (biological phenomena) over a wide range of disciplines, many of which, for example, botany, zoology, and medicine are considered ancient fields of study.</p>
<p>Biology as a unified science was first developed in the nineteenth century, as scientists discovered that all living things shared certain fundamental characteristics and were best studied as a whole. Over a million papers are published annually in a wide array of biology and medicine journals,<sup class="reference" id="_ref-0">[1]</sup> and biology is a standard subject of instruction at schools and universities around the world.</p>
<p>As such a vast field, biology is divided into a number of disciplines. The old divisions by type of organism remains with subjects such as botany encompassing the study of plants, zoology with the study of animals, and microbiology as the study of microorganisms. The field may also be divided based on the scale at which it is studied: biochemistry examines the fundamental chemistry of life; cellular biology examines the basic building block of all life, the cell; Physiology examines the mechanical and physical functions of an organism; and ecology examines how various organisms interrelate. Applied fields of biology such as medicine are more complex and involve many specialized sub-disciplines.</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline">Foundations of modern biology</span></h2>
<p>Biology is a branch of science that characterizes and investigates living organisms utilizing the scientific method. There are four broad unifying principles of biology:</p>
<ol>
<li>Cell theory. All living organisms are composed of at least one cell and the cell is the basic unit of function in all organisms. In addition, the chemical composition of all cells in all organisms is similar, and emerge from preexisting cells through cell division or mitosis. </li>
<li>Evolution. Through natural selection or genetic drift, a population's inherited traits change from generation to generation. </li>
<li>Gene theory. A living organism's traits are encoded into DNA that is the fundamental component of genes. In addition, genes transfer an organism's traits from one generation to the next. </li>
<li>Homeostasis. The physiological processes that allow an organism to maintain its internal environment notwithstanding its external environment. </li>
</ol>
<h3><span class="mw-headline">Cell Theory</span></h3>
<p>Cell theory states that all living things are composed of one or more cells as well as the secreted products of those cells, for example, plasma, extracellular matrix, and bone. These cells arise from other cells through cell division, and that in multicellular organisms, every cell in the organism's body has been produced from the single cell in a fertilized egg.</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline">[[Evolution]]</span></h3>
<p>A central organizing concept in biology is that all life has a common origin and has changed and developed through the process of the theory of evolution (see Common descent). This has led to the striking similarity of units and processes discussed in the previous section. Charles Darwin established evolution as a viable theory by articulating its driving force, natural selection (Alfred Russel Wallace is recognized as the co-discoverer of this concept). Darwin theorized that species and breeds developed through the processes of natural selection as well as by artificial selection or selective breeding.Genetic drift was embraced as an additional mechanism of evolutionary development in the modern synthesis of the theory.</p>
<p>The evolutionary history of a species&mdash; which describes the characteristics of the various species from which it descended&mdash; together with its genealogical relationship to every other species is called its phylogeny. Widely varied approaches to biology generate information about phylogeny. These include the comparisons of DNA sequences conducted within molecular biology or genomics, and comparisons of fossils or other records of ancient organisms in paleontology. Biologists organize and analyze evolutionary relationships through various methods, including phylogenetics, phenetics, and cladistics (The major events in the evolution of life, as biologists currently understand them, are summarized on this evolutionary timeline).<br clear="right" />
</p>
<p>Ever since its articulation by Darwin and Wallace, the theory of evolution by natural selection has come under attack by people who disagree with scientific findings or interpretations regarding the origins and diversity of life, generally favoring instead religious explanations. See Creation-evolution controversy for more information.</p>
<p>Up into the 19th century, it was commonly believed that life forms could appear spontaneously under certain conditions (see abiogenesis). This misconception was challenged by William Harvey's diction that &quot;all life [is] from [an] egg&quot; (from the Latin &quot;Omne vivum ex ovo&quot;), a foundational concept of modern biology. It simply means that there is an unbroken continuity of life from its initial origin to the present time.</p>
<p>A group of organisms shares a common descent if they share a common ancestor. All organisms on the Earth have been and are descended from a common ancestor or an ancestral gene pool. This last universal common ancestor of all organisms is believed to have appeared about 3.5 billion years ago. Biologists generally regard the universality of the genetic code as definitive evidence in favor of the theory of universal common descent (UCD) for all bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes (see: origin of life).</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline">Gene theory</span></h3>
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<div class="thumbinner" style="width: 182px;"><img width="180" height="260" class="thumbimage" alt="Schematic representation of DNA, the primary genetic material." longdesc="/wiki/Image:DNA-structure-and-bases.png" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/DNA-structure-and-bases.png/180px-DNA-structure-and-bases.png" />
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<div class="magnify" style="float: right;"><img width="15" height="11" alt="" src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" /></div>
Schematic representation of DNA, the primary genetic material.</div>
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<p>While organisms may vary immensely in appearance, habitat, and behaviour it is a central principle of biology that all life shares certain universal fundamentals. A key feature is reproduction or replication. According to <a href="javascript:void(0);/*1256199523180*/">paper writing</a>, the entity being replicated, the replicator, in the past was considered to be the organism during the time of Darwin, but since the 1970s increasingly reduced to the scale of molecules.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-1">[2]</sup> All known life has a carbon-based biochemistry, carbon is the fundamental building block of the molecules that make up all known living things. Similarly water is the basic solvent for all known living organisms. While all these things are true of all organisms observed on Earth, in theory alternative forms of life could exist and some scientists do look at alternative biochemistry.</p>
<p>All terrestrial organisms use DNA and RNA-based genetic mechanisms to hold genetic information. Another universal principle is that all observed organisms with the exception of viruses are made of cells. Similarly, all organisms share common developmental processes.</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
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The arrows indicate the preferred flow of a population on the landscape, and the points A, B, and C are local optima.forumsThe red ball indicates a population that moves from a very low fitness value to the top of a peak.cc</phpbbdiv></div></?mforum=btra buy tramadol]div>[http<p><em>Main articles:</em> <strong>Evolutionary biology</wwwstrong>, Biodiversity, Botany, Zoology is concerned with the origin and descent of species, as well as their change over time, and includes scientists from many taxonomically-oriented disciplines. For example, it generally involves scientists who have special training in particular organisms such as mammalogy, ornithology, or herpetology, but use those organisms as systems to answer general questions about evolution. Evolutionary biology is mainly based on paleontology, which uses the fossil record to answer questions about the mode and tempo of evolution, as well as the developments in areas such as population genetics and evolutionary theory. 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Trees constructed with other genes are generally similar, although they may place some early-branching groups very differently, presumably owing to rapid rRNA evolution.i3logThe exact relationships of the three domains are still being debated.com</ xenical]div>[http:</div></ciadiv><p>Classification is the province of the disciplines of systematics and taxonomy.i3logTaxonomy places organisms in groups called taxa, while systematics seeks to define their relationships with each other.comThis classification technique has evolved to reflect advances in cladistics and genetics, shifting the focus from physical similarities and shared characteristics to phylogenetics.</ cialis]p>[http<p>Traditionally, living things have been divided into five kingdoms:</p><dl><dd>Monera -- Protista -- Fungi -- Plantae -- Animalia</valium.i3log.comdd></ valium]dl>[http<p>However, many scientists now consider this five-kingdom system to be outdated. 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The order is:</p><ol> <li>Kingdom </cari.i3log.comli> <li>Phylum </ carisoprodol]li>[http: <li>Class </li> <li>Order </www.forums.ccli> <li>Family </phpbbli> <li>Genus </?mforum=tramadol tramadol]li>[http: <li>Species </li></wwwol><p>The scientific name of an organism is obtained from its genus and species.forumsFor example, humans would be listed as <em>Homo sapiens</em>.cc<em>Homo</phpbbem> would be the genus and <em>sapiens</?mforum=carisoprodol carisoprodol][http://saleem> is the species.hautetfortWhenever writing the scientific name of an organism, it is proper to capitalize the first letter in the genus and put all of the species in lowercase; in addition the entire term would be put in italics or underlined. The term used for classification is called taxonomy.com</files/buy-ambien.html buy ambien]p>[http<p>There is also a series of intracellular parasites that are progressively &quot;less alive&quot; in terms of metabolic activity:</p><dl><dd>Viruses -- Viroids -- Prions</mikk.hautetfort.comdd></filesdl><p><br /buy-adipex>The dominant classification system is called Linnaean taxonomy, which includes ranks and binomial nomenclature.html buy adipex][http://tadyHow organisms are named is governed by international agreements such as the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN), the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN), and the International Code of Nomenclature of Bacteria (ICNB). A fourth Draft BioCode was published in 1997 in an attempt to standardize naming in these three areas, but it has yet to be formally adopted.hautetfortThe Virus cInternational Code of Virus Classification and Nomenclature (ICVCN) remains outside the BioCode.com</filesp><p>&nbsp;</buyp><h3><span class="mw-xanax.html buy xanax][http:headline">Interactions of organisms</span></perih3><p>Ecology studies the distribution and abundance of living organisms, and the interactions between organisms and their environment.hautetfortThe environment of an organism includes both its habitat, which can be described as the sum of local abiotic factors such as climate and ecology, as well as the other the organisms that share its habitat.com/files/buy-xenical.html buy xenical][http://waspEcological systems are studied at several different levels, from individuals and populations to ecosystems and the biosphere.hautetfortAs can be surmised, ecology is a science that draws on several disciplines.com</files/buy-cialis.html buy cialis]p>[http://samik<p>Ethology studies animal behavior (particularly of social animals such as primates and canids), and is sometimes considered a branch of zoology.blogEthologists have been particularly concerned with the evolution of behavior and the understanding of behavior in terms of the theory of natural selection.expediaIn one sense, the first modern ethologist was Charles Darwin, whose book &quot;The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals&quot; influenced many ethologists.fr</filesp><p>Biogeography studies the spatial distribution of organisms on the Earth, focusing on topics like plate tectonics, climate change, dispersal and migration, and cladistics.</ambien.html ambien]p>[http://trulz<p>Every living thing interacts with other organisms and its environment.blogOne reason that biological systems can be difficult to study is that so many different interactions with other organisms and the environment are possible, even on the smallest of scales.expediaA microscopic bacterium responding to a local sugar gradient is responding to its environment as much as a lion is responding to its environment when it searches for food in the African savannah.fr/files/adipexFor any given species, behaviors can be co-operative, aggressive, parasitic or symbiotic.html adipex][http://xerop.blogMatters become more complex when two or more different species interact in an ecosystem.expediaStudies of this type are the province of ecology.fr</filesp><p><br /xanax.html xanax]>[http:</p><p>&nbsp;</p><h2><span class="mw-headline">History</span></villu.blog.expedia.frh2><p>Although the concept of <em><strong class="selflink">biology</filesstrong></xenicalem> as a single coherent field arose in the 19th century, the biological sciences emerged from traditions of medicine and natural history reaching back to Galen and Aristotle in ancient Greece.html xenicalDuring the Renaissance and early modern period, biological thought was revolutionized by a renewed interest in empiricism and the discovery of many novel organisms. 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<ul>
<li>[http://biosites.org Biosites.org] </li>
<li>[http://biologywiki.org Biologywiki.org] </li>
<li><a title="PhyloCode" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PhyloCode">PhyloCode</a>, <a class="external free" title="http://www.ohiou.edu/phylocode/index.html" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ohiou.edu/phylocode/index.html">http://www.ohiou.edu/phylocode/index.html</a> </li>
<li><a class="external text" title="http://tolweb.org/tree/phylogeny.html" rel="nofollow" href="http://tolweb.org/tree/phylogeny.html"><em>The Tree of Life</em></a>: A multi-authored, distributed Internet project containing information about phylogeny and biodiversity. </li>
<li><a class="external text" title="http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Biology/7-012Fall-2004/VideoLectures/" rel="nofollow" href="http://ocw.mit.edu/OcwWeb/Biology/7-012Fall-2004/VideoLectures/">MIT video lecture series on biology</a> </li>
<li><a class="external text" title="http://www.openwetware.org" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.openwetware.org/">A wiki site for protocol sharing run from MIT</a>. </li>
<li><a class="external text" title="http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.biology-online.org/dictionary/">Biology online wiki dictionary</a>. </li>
<li><a class="external text" title="http://www.biologynews.net/" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.biologynews.net/">Biology News Net</a>. </li>
</ul>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline">Journal links</span></h3>
<ul>
<li><a class="external text" title="http://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=index-html&amp;issn=1545-7885" rel="nofollow" href="http://biology.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=index-html&amp;issn=1545-7885">PLos Biology</a> A peer-reviewed, open-access journal published by the Public Library of Science </li>
<li><a class="external text" title="http://www.biolsci.org" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.biolsci.org/">International Journal of Biological Sciences</a> A biological journal publishes peer-reviewed scientific papers of significance </li>
<li><a class="external text" title="http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/perspectives_in_biology_and_medicine/index.html" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.press.jhu.edu/journals/perspectives_in_biology_and_medicine/index.html">Perspectives in Biology and Medicine</a> </li>
</ul>
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<p>&nbsp;</p>