<p><strong>Genetics</strong> (from the Greek <em>genno</em> <strong>&gamma;&epsilon;&nu;&nu;ώ&Iuml;Ž</strong> = give birth) is the science of genes, heredity, evolution, and the variation of organisms.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-Hartl_and_Jones_0">[1]</sup><sup class="reference" id="_ref-0">[2]</sup> The phenomenon of inheritance has been implicitly utilized in breeding of organisms and selection for desired traits, and the scientific field of genetics seeks to understand the mechanisms of inheritance.<a rel="dofollow" href="http://www.miere-bucovina.ro" title="miere de albine"><img hspace="2" border="0" vspace="2" src="http://www.all-auto.ro/img/a%20auto" alt="miere de albine" /></a></p><p>The genetic information of organisms is contained within the chemical structure of [[DNA ]] (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules. Individually inherited traits, corresponding to regions in the DNA sequence, are called genes. Genes encode the information necessary for synthesizing RNA and proteins -- complex molecules generally responsible for enzymatic reactions, synthesis, communication and structure within a cell. DNA sequence is transcribed into an intermediate molecule called &quot;messenger RNA&quot;, and ribosomes translate this sequence to form a chain of amino acids to form a protein. This process is known as the central dogma of molecular biology.<a rel="dofollow" href="http://www.auto-my.com/auto-parts" title="auto parts online"><img hspace="2" border="0" vspace="2" src="http://www.all-auto.ro/img/a%20auto" alt="auto parts online" /></a></p><p>Although genetics plays a large role in determining the appearance and behavior of organisms, it is the interaction of genetics with the environment that determines the ultimate outcome. Thus, while identical twins have the same DNA and genes, differences in their experiences during development and childhood results in different personalities and fingerprints. </p>

<dl><dd><div class="noprint"><em>Main article: <a title="History of genetics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_genetics">History of genetics</a></em></div></ddp>&nbsp;</dlp>

<div class="thumbinner" style="WIDTHwidth: 202px;"><a classimg height="internal183" titlewidth="Morgan's observation of sex-linked inheritance of a mutation causing white eyes in Drosophila led him to the hypothesis that genes are located upon chromosomes.200" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Sexlinked_inheritance_white.jpg"><img class="thumbimage" height="183" alt="Morgan's observation of sex-linked inheritance of a mutation causing white eyes in Drosophila led him to the hypothesis that genes are located upon chromosomes." width="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Sexlinked_inheritance_white.jpg" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Sexlinked_inheritance_white.jpg/200px-Sexlinked_inheritance_white.jpg" /></a>

<div class="magnify" style="FLOATfloat: right"><a class="internal" title="Enlarge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Sexlinked_inheritance_white.jpg;"><img height="11" altwidth="15" widthalt="15" src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" /></a></div>Morgan's observation of sex-linked inheritance of a mutation causing white eyes in <a title="Drosophila" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drosophila">Drosophila</a> led him to the hypothesis that genes are located upon chromosomes.</div>

<p><a title="Gregor Johann Mendel" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregor_Johann_Mendel">Gregor Johann Mendel</a>, a German-Czech <a title="Augustinian" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustinian">Augustinian</a> monk and scientist, is often called the &quot;father of modern genetics&quot;, a title given to him due to his early work on the heredity of plants. In his paper &quot;Versuche &uuml;ber Pflanzenhybriden&quot; (&quot;<a title="Experiments on Plant Hybridization" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiments_on_Plant_Hybridization">Experiments on Plant Hybridization</a>&quot;), presented in <a title="1865" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1865">1865</a> to the Brunn Natural History Society, <a title="Gregor Mendel" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregor_Mendel">Gregor Mendel</a> traced the inheritance patterns of certain traits in pea plants and showed that they could be described mathematically.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-mendel_0">[3]</sup> Although not all features show these patterns of Mendelian inheritance, his work suggested the utility of the application of statistics to the study of inheritance.<a titlerel="dofollow" href="http://enwww.wikipediaauto-my.org/wikiro/Genetics#_notevanzari-mendelauto" title="vanzari auto">[3]</a></sup> Although not all features show these patterns of <a titleimg hspace="2" border="0" vspace="Mendelian inheritance2" hrefsrc="http://enwww.wikipediaall-auto.orgro/wikiimg/Mendelian_inheritancea%20auto" alt="vanzari auto"/>Mendelian inheritance</a>, his work suggested the utility of the application of statistics to the study of inheritance.</p>

<div class="thumbinner" style="WIDTHwidth: 302px;"><a class="internal" title="The chemical structure of DNA." href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:DNA_chemical_structure.svg"><img classheight="350" width="thumbimage300" heightclass="350thumbimage" alt="The chemical structure of DNA." width="300" longdesc="/wiki/Image:DNA_chemical_structure.svg" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/DNA_chemical_structure.svg/300px-DNA_chemical_structure.svg.png" /></a>

<div class="magnify" style="FLOATfloat: right;"><a class="internal" title="Enlarge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:DNA_chemical_structure.svg"><img height="11" altwidth="15" widthalt="15" src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" /></a></div>

<p>Although chromosomes were known to contain genes, chromosomes were composed of both protein and DNA -- it was unknown which was critical for heredity or how the process occurred. In 1928, <a title="Frederick Griffith" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Griffith">Frederick Griffith</a> published his discovery of the phenomenon of <a title="Transformation (genetics)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transformation_%28genetics%29">transformation</a> (see <a title="Griffith's experiment" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griffith%27s_experiment">Griffith's experiment</a>); sixteen years later, in 1944, <a title="Oswald Theodore Avery" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oswald_Theodore_Avery">Oswald Theodore Avery</a>, <a title="Colin McLeod" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_McLeod">Colin McLeod</a> and <a title="Maclyn McCarty" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maclyn_McCarty">Maclyn McCarty</a> used this phenomenon to isolate and identify the molecule responsible for transformation as DNA<sup class="reference" id="_ref-dna_transforming_0"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_note-dna_transforming">[6]</a></sup>. The <a title="Hershey-Chase experiment" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hershey-Chase_experiment">Hershey-Chase experiment</a> in 1952 identified DNA (rather than protein) as the genetic material of viruses, further evidence that DNA was the molecule responsible for inheritance.</p><p><a titlerel="James D. Watsondofollow" href="http://enwww.wikipediaauto-tip.orgro/wiki/James_D._Watsondezmembrari-auto" title="dezmembrari auto">James D. Watson</a> and <a titleimg hspace="2" border="0" vspace="Francis Crick2" hrefsrc="http://enwww.wikipediaall-auto.orgro/wikiimg/Francis_Cricka%20auto" alt="dezmembrari auto" />Francis Crick</a> .</p><p>James D. Watson and Francis Crick resolved the structure of DNA in 1953, using <a title="X-ray crystallography" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_crystallography">X-ray crystallography</a> information that indicated the molecule had a helical structure. Their double-helix model paired a sequence of nucleotides with a &quot;complement&quot; on the other strand. This structure not only provided a physical explanation for information, contained within the order of the nucleotides, but also a physical mechanism for duplication through separation of strands and the reconstruction of a partner strand based on the nucleotide pairings. They famously observed this in their paper, stating: <em>&quot;It has not escaped our notice that the specific pairing we have postulated immediately suggests a possible copying mechanism for the genetic material.&quot;</em></p><p>In the following decades, an explosion of research based on this understanding of the molecular nature of DNA became possible. The development of <a title="DNA sequencing" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_sequencing">DNA sequencing</a> in 1977 enabled the determination of nucleotide sequences on DNA,<sup class="reference" id="_ref-sanger_sequencing_0"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_note-sanger_sequencing">[7]</a></sup> and the <a title="PCR" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PCR">PCR</a> method developed by <a title="Kary Banks Mullis" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kary_Banks_Mullis">Kary Banks Mullis</a> in 1983 allowed the isolation and amplification of arbitrary segments of DNA. These and other techniques, through the pooled efforts of the <a title="Human Genome Project" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Genome_Project">Human Genome Project</a> and parallel private effort by <a title="Celera Genomics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celera_Genomics">Celera Genomics</a>, culminated in the sequencing of the human <a title="Genome" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome">genome</a> in 2001.</p>

<li>1865 Gregor Mendel's paper, <em>Experiments on Plant Hybridization<a title/em><sup class="1865reference" hrefid="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1865"_ref-mendel_1">1865[3]</asup> <a title="Gregor Mendel" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregor_Mendel"li>Gregor Mendel </li>1869 Friedrich Miescher discovers a>'s paper, weak acid in the nuclei of white blood cells that today we call DNA<em><a titlesup class="Experiments on Plant Hybridization" hrefreference" id="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiments_on_Plant_Hybridization_ref-Hartl_and_Jones_1">Experiments on Plant Hybridization[1]</asup></emli> <sup class="reference" id="_refli>1880-mendel_1"1890 Walther Flemming, Eduard Strasburger, and Edouard van Beneden elucidate chromosome distribution during cell division</li> <a titleli>1903 Walter Sutton hypothesizes that chromosomes, which segregate in a Mendelian fashion, are hereditary units<sup class="reference" hrefid="http_ref-100_Years_Ago://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_note-mendel">[3]</a><_Walter_Sutton_and_the_Chromosome_Theory_of_Heredity_0">[8]</sup> </li> <li>1906 The term &quot;genetics&quot; is proposed by the British biologist William Bateson<a titlesup class="1869reference" hrefid="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1869_ref-bateson_genetics_1">1869[5]</asup> <a title="Friedrich Miescher" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Miescher">Friedrich Miescher/li> </ali> discovers a weak acid in the nuclei 1910 Thomas Hunt Morgan shows that genes reside on chromosomes, and discovered linked genes on chromosomes that do not follow Mendel's law of independent allele segregation<a title="Leukocyte" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leukocyte"li> <li>white blood cells1913 Alfred Sturtevant makes the first genetic map of a chromosome, showing genes are linearly arranged</ali> that today we call <a title="DNA" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA" <li>DNA<1918 Ronald Fisher publishes &quot;The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance&quot; the modern synthesis starts.</ali> <sup class="reference" id="_ref-Hartl_and_Jones_1"li>1928 Frederick Griffith discovers a hereditary molecule that is transmissible between bacteria (see Griffiths experiment)<a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_note-Hartl_and_Jones"li>[1] </a></supli> 1931 Crossing over is the cause of recombination (see Barbara McClintock and cytogenetics)</li> <li><a title=1941 Edward Lawrie Tatum and George Wells Beadle show that genes code for proteins<sup class="1880reference" hrefid="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1880_ref-2">1880[9]</asup>-<a title="1890" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1890"li>1890 </ali> <a title=1944 Oswald Theodore Avery, Colin McLeod and Maclyn McCarty isolate DNA as the genetic material (at that time called transforming principle)<sup class="Walther Flemmingreference" hrefid="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walther_Flemming"_ref-dna_transforming_1">Walther Flemming[6]</asup>, <a title="Eduard Strasburger" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_Strasburger"li>Eduard Strasburger </ali>1950 Erwin Chargaff shows that the four nucleotides are not present in nucleic acids in stable proportions, and <a title="Edouard van Beneden" href="http://enbut that some general rules appear to hold (e.wikipediag.org, the nucleotide bases Adenine-Thymine and Cytosine-Guanine always remain in equal proportions).</wiki/Edouard_van_Beneden"li>Edouard van Beneden </ali> elucidate chromosome distribution during cell division 1950 Barbara McClintock discovers transposons in maize</li> <li><a title="1903" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1903">19031952 The Hershey-Chase experiment proves the genetic information of phages (and all other organisms) to be DNA</ali> <li>1953 DNA structure is resolved to be a titledouble helix by James D. Watson and Francis Crick, with the help of Rosalind Franklin<sup class="Walter Suttonreference" hrefid="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Sutton_ref-3">Walter Sutton[10]</asup> hypothesizes that chromosomes, which segregate in a Mendelian fashion, are hereditary units<sup class="reference" id="_ref-100_Years_Ago:_Walter_Sutton_and_the_Chromosome_Theory_of_Heredity_0"/li> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_note-100_Years_Ago:_Walter_Sutton_and_the_Chromosome_Theory_of_Heredity">[8]</a></sup> li>1956 Joe Hin Tjio and Albert Levan established the correct chromosome number in humans to be 46</li> <li><a title1958 The Meselson-Stahl experiment demonstrates that DNA is semiconservatively replicated<sup class="1906reference" hrefid="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1906_ref-4">1906[11]</asup></li> <li> 1961 The term &quot;genetics&quot; genetic code is proposed by the British biologist arranged in triplets<a title="William Bateson" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bateson">William Bateson/li> </ali><sup class="reference" id="_ref-bateson_genetics_1"1964 Howard Temin showed using RNA viruses that Watson's central dogma is not always true</li> <li>1970 Restriction enzymes were discovered in studies of a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_note-bateson_genetics">[5]</a>bacterium, </supem> Haemophilus influenzae</liem>, enabling scientists to cut and paste DNA</li> <li><a title="1910" href="http1972, Walter Fiers and his team at the Laboratory of Molecular Biology of the University of Ghent (Ghent, Belgium) were the first to determine the sequence of a gene://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1910">1910the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein</a> <a titlesup class="Thomas Hunt Morganreference" hrefid="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan_ref-5">Thomas Hunt Morgan[12]</asup> shows that genes reside on chromosomes, and discovered linked genes on chromosomes that do not follow Mendel's law of independent allele segregation .</li> <li><a title=1976, Walter Fiers and his team determine the complete nucleotide-sequence of Bacteriophage MS2-RNA<sup class="1913reference" hrefid="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1913_ref-6">1913[13]</asup> <a title="Alfred Sturtevant" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Sturtevant"li>Alfred Sturtevant </ali> makes the 1977 DNA is sequenced for the first <a title="Genetic map" href="http://entime by Fred Sanger, Walter Gilbert, and Allan Maxam working independently.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_mapSanger's lab complete the entire genome of sequence of Bacteriophage &Phi;-X174<sup class="reference" id="_ref-sanger_sequencing_1">genetic map[7]</asup> of a chromosome, showing genes are linearly arranged .</li> <li>1983 Kary Banks Mullis discovers the polymerase chain reaction enabling the easy amplification of DNA<a title="1918" href="http://en/li> <li>1985 Alec Jeffreys discovers genetic finger printing.wikipedia.org</wiki/1918"li>1918 </ali> <a title1989 The first human gene is sequenced by Francis Collins and Lap-Chee Tsui. It encodes the CFTR protein. Defects in this gene cause cystic fibrosis<a title="Ronald Fisherasigurari auto ieftine" href="http://enwww.wikipediaall-auto.orgro/wiki/Ronald_Fisherasigurari-auto" rel="dofollow">Ronald Fisher</a> publishes &quot;<a titleimg hspace="2" border="The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance0" hrefvspace="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Correlation_Between_Relatives_on_the_Supposition_of_Mendelian_Inheritance2">The Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance</a>&quot; the <a titlealt="Modern synthesisasigurari auto ieftine" hrefsrc="http://enwww.wikipediaall-auto.orgro/wikiimages/Modern_synthesisasigurari auto"/>modern synthesis</a> starts. </li> <li>1995 The genome of <a title="1928" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1928"em>1928Haemophilus influenzae</aem> <a title="Frederick Griffith" href="http://enis the first genome of a free living organism to be sequenced.wikipedia.org</wiki/Frederick_Griffith"li>Frederick Griffith </ali> discovers a hereditary molecule that 1996 Saccharomyces cerevisiae is transmissible between bacteria (see the first eukaryote genome sequence to be released<a title="Griffiths experiment" href="http://enli> <li>1998 The first genome sequence for a multicellular eukaryote, <em>C.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griffiths_experiment">Griffiths experimentelegans</aem>) is released.</li> <li>2001 First draft sequences of the human genome are released simultaneously by the Human Genome Project and Celera Genomics <a titlerel="1931dofollow" href="http://enwww.wikipediaauto-tip.orgro/wiki/1931piese-auto">1931</a> <a title="Crossing overpiese auto" href><img hspace="2" border="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossing_over0">Crossing over</a> is the cause of <a titlevspace="Recombination2" hrefsrc="http://enwww.wikipediaall-auto.orgro/wikiimg/Recombinationa%20auto">recombination</a> (see <a title="Barbara McClintock" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara_McClintock">Barbara McClintock</a> and <a title="Cytogenetics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytogenetics">cytogenetics</a>) </li> <li><a title="1941" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1941">1941</a> <a title="Edward Lawrie Tatum" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Lawrie_Tatum">Edward Lawrie Tatum</a> and <a title="George Wells Beadle" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Wells_Beadle">George Wells Beadle</a> show that genes code for <a title="Protein" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein">proteins</a><sup class="reference" id="_ref-2"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_note-2">[9]</a></sup> </li> <li><a title="1944" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1944">1944</a> <a title="Oswald Theodore Avery" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oswald_Theodore_Avery">Oswald Theodore Avery</a>, <a title="Colin McLeod" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_McLeod">Colin McLeod</a> and <a title="Maclyn McCarty" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maclyn_McCarty">Maclyn McCarty</a> isolate <a title="DNA" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA">DNA</a> as the genetic material (at that time called <a title="Transforming principle" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transforming_principle">transforming principle</a>)<sup class="reference" id="_ref-dna_transforming_1"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_note-dna_transforming">[6]</a></sup> </li> <li><a title="1950" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1950">1950</a> <a title="Erwin Chargaff" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erwin_Chargaff">Erwin Chargaff</a> shows that the four nucleotides are not present in nucleic acids in stable proportions, but that some general rules appear to hold (e.g., the nucleotide bases Adenine-Thymine and Cytosine-Guanine always remain in equal proportions). </li> <li><a title="1950" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1950">1950</a> <a title="Barbara McClintock" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara_McClintock">Barbara McClintock</a> discovers <a title="Transposon" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transposon">transposons</a> in <a title="Maize" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maize">maize</a> </li> <li><a title="1952" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1952">1952</a> The <a title="Hershey-Chase experiment" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hershey-Chase_experiment">Hershey-Chase experiment</a> proves the genetic information of <a title="Phage" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phage">phages</a> (and all other organisms) to be DNA </li> <li><a title="1953" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1953">1953</a> DNA structure is resolved to be a <a title="Double helix" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_helix">double helix</a> by <a title="James D. Watson" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_D._Watson">James D. Watson</a> and <a title="Francis Crick" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Crick">Francis Crick</a>, with the help of <a title="Rosalind Franklin" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosalind_Franklin">Rosalind Franklin</a><sup class="reference" id="_ref-3"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_note-3">[10]</a></sup> </li> <li><a title="1956" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1956">1956</a> <a title="Joe Hin Tjio" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Hin_Tjio">Joe Hin Tjio</a> and <a title="Albert Levan" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Levan">Albert Levan</a> established the correct chromosome number in humans to be 46 </li> <li><a title="1958" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1958">1958</a> The <a title="Meselson-Stahl experiment" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meselson-Stahl_experiment">Meselson-Stahl experiment</a> demonstrates that DNA is <a title="Semiconservative replication" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconservative_replication">semiconservatively replicated</a><sup class="reference" id="_ref-4"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_note-4">[11]</a></sup> </li> <li><a title="1961" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1961">1961</a> The <a title="Genetic code" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_code">genetic code</a> is arranged in triplets </li> <li><a title="1964" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1964">1964</a> <a title="Howard Temin" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Temin">Howard Temin</a> showed using <a title="RNA virus" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA_virus">RNA viruses</a> that Watson's <a title="Central dogma" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_dogma">central dogma</a> is not always true </li> <li><a title="1970" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1970">1970</a> <a title="Restriction enzymes" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restriction_enzymes">Restriction enzymes</a> were discovered in studies of a bacterium, <em><a title="Haemophilus influenzae" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haemophilus_influenzae">Haemophilus influenzae</a></em>, enabling scientists to cut and paste DNA </li> <li><a title="1972" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972">1972</a>, <a title="Walter Fiers" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Fiers">Walter Fiers</a> and his team at the Laboratory of Molecular Biology of the <a title="University of Ghent" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Ghent">University of Ghent</a> (<a title="Ghent" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghent">Ghent</a>, <a title="Belgium" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgium">Belgium</a>) were the first to determine the sequence of a gene: the gene for <a title="Bacteriophage MS2" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriophage_MS2">Bacteriophage MS2</a> coat protein<sup class="reference" id="_ref-5"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_note-5">[12]</a></sup>. </li> <li><a title="1976" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1976">1976</a>, <a title="Walter Fiers" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Fiers">Walter Fiers</a> and his team determine the complete nucleotide-sequence of <a title="Bacteriophage MS2" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriophage_MS2">Bacteriophage MS2</a>-RNA<sup class="reference" id="_ref-6"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_note-6">[13]</a></sup> </li> <li><a title="1977" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1977">1977</a> DNA is <a title="Sequencing" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequencing">sequenced</a> for the first time by <a title="Fred Sanger" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Sanger">Fred Sanger</a>, <a title="Walter Gilbert" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Gilbert">Walter Gilbert</a>, and <a title="Allan Maxam" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_Maxam">Allan Maxam</a> working independently. Sanger's lab complete the entire genome of sequence of <a title="Bacteriophage" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriophage">Bacteriophage</a> <a title="Phi-X174 phage" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phi-X174_phage">&Phi;-X174</a><sup class="reference" id="_ref-sanger_sequencing_1"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_note-sanger_sequencing">[7]</a></sup>. </li> <li><a title="1983" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1983">1983</a> <a title="Kary Banks Mullis" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kary_Banks_Mullis">Kary Banks Mullis</a> discovers the <a title="Polymerase chain reaction" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction">polymerase chain reaction</a> enabling the easy amplification of DNA </li> <li><a title="1985" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1985">1985</a> <a title="Alec Jeffreys" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alec_Jeffreys">Alec Jeffreys</a> discovers genetic finger printing. </li> <li><a title="1989" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989">1989</a> The first human gene is sequenced by <a title="Francis Collins" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Collins">Francis Collins</a> and <a title="Lap-Chee Tsui" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lap-Chee_Tsui">Lap-Chee Tsui</a>. It encodes the <a title="CFTR" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CFTR">CFTR</a> protein. Defects in this gene cause <a title="Cystic fibrosis" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cystic_fibrosis">cystic fibrosis</a> </li> <li><a title="1995" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1995">1995</a> The genome of <em><a title="Haemophilus influenzae" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haemophilus_influenzae">Haemophilus influenzae</a></em> is the first genome of a free living organism to be sequenced. </li> <li><a title="1996" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1996">1996</a> Saccharomyces cerevisiae is the first <a title="Eukaryote" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryote">eukaryote</a> genome sequence to be released </li> <li><a title="1998" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1998">1998</a> The first genome sequence for a multicellular eukaryote, <em><a title="C. elegans" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._elegans">C. elegans</a></em> is released. </li> <li><a title="2001" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001">2001</a> First draft sequences of the human genome are released simultaneously by the <a title="Human Genome Project" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Genome_Project">Human Genome Project</a> and <a titlealt="Celera Genomicspiese auto" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celera_Genomics">Celera Genomics</a>. </li> <li><a title="2003" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003">2003</a> (<a title="April 14" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_14">14 April</a>) Successful completion of <a title="Human Genome Project" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Genome_Project">Human Genome Project</a> with 98% of the genome sequenced to a 99.99% <a title="Accuracy" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accuracy">accuracy</a>.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-7"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_note-7">[14]</a></sup> </li>

<p><a id="Classical_genetics" name="Classical_genetics"></a>&nbsp;</p>

<dl><dd><em>Main articles:</em> <a titlebr type="Classical genetics" href=_moz"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_genetics">Classical genetics</a>, <a title="Mendelian inheritance" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance">Mendelian inheritance</a> </dd></dl><p>Classical genetics consists of the techniques and methodologies of genetics that predate the advent of <a title="Molecular biology" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology">molecular biology</a>. After the discovery of the genetic code and such tools of <a title="Clone (genetics)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clone_%28genetics%29">cloning</a> as <a title="Restriction enzyme" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restriction_enzyme">restriction enzymes</a>, the avenues of investigation open to geneticists were greatly broadened. Some classical genetic ideas have been supplanted with the mechanistic understanding brought by molecular discoveries, but many remain intact and in use, such as <a title="Mendelian inheritance" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendelian_inheritance">Mendel's laws</a> and <a title="Muller's morphs" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muller%27s_morphs">Muller's morphs</a>. Patterns of inheritance still remain a useful tool for the study of <a title="Genetic disease" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_disease">genetic diseases</a>.</p><p><a id="Behavioral_genetics" name="Behavioral_genetics"></a>&nbsp;</p>

<dl><dd><em>Main article:</em> <a titlebr type="Behavioral genetics" href=_moz"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Behavioral_genetics">Behavioral genetics</a> </dd></dl><p>Behavioral genetics studies the influence of varying genetics on animal behavior. Behavioral genetics studies the effects of human disorders as well as its causes. Behavioral genetics has yielded some very interesting questions about the evolution of various behaviors, and even some fundamental principles of evolution in general. For example, guppies and meerkats seem to be genetically driven to post a lookout to watch for predators. This lookout stands a significantly slimmer chance of survival than the others, so because of the mechanism of <a title="Natural selection" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_selection">natural selection</a>, it would seem that this trait would be lost after a few generations. However, the gene has remained, leading evolutionary philosopher/scientists such as <a title="Richard Dawkins" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a> and <a title="W. D. Hamilton" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._D._Hamilton">W. D. Hamilton</a> to propose explanations, including the theories of <a title="Kin selection" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kin_selection">kin selection</a> and <a title="Reciprocal altruism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reciprocal_altruism">reciprocal altruism</a>. The interactions and behaviors of gregarious creatures is partially genetic in cause and must therefore be approached by evolutionary theory.</p><p><a id="Clinical_genetics" name="Clinical_genetics"></a>&nbsp;</p>

<div class="noprint"><em>Main article: <a title="Clinical genetics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinical_genetics">Clinical genetics</a></em>&nbsp;</div>

<p><a title="Physician" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physician">Physicians</a> who are trained as Geneticists diagnose, treat, and counsel patients with <a title="Genetic disorder" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_disorder">genetic disorders</a> or <a title="Syndrome" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syndrome">syndromes</a>. These doctors are typically trained in a genetics <a title="Residency (medicine)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Residency_%28medicine%29">residency</a> and/or <a title="Fellowship" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellowship">fellowship</a>.</p>

<p><a id="Molecular_genetics" name="Molecular_genetics"></a>&nbsp;</p>

<div class="noprint"><em>Main article: <a title="Molecular genetics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_genetics">Molecular genetics</a></em>&nbsp;</div>

<p>Molecular genetics builds upon the foundation of classical genetics but focuses on the structure and function of genes at a <a title="Molecule" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecule">molecular</a> level. Molecular genetics employs the methods of both classical genetics (such as <a title="Hybridization" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybridization">hybridization</a>) and <a title="Molecular biology" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology">molecular biology</a>. It is so-called to differentiate it from other sub fields of genetics such as <a title="Ecological genetics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_genetics">ecological genetics</a> and <a title="Population genetics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_genetics">population genetics</a>. An important area within molecular genetics is the use of molecular information to determine the patterns of descent, and therefore the correct <a title="Scientific classification" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_classification">scientific classification</a> of organisms: this is called <a title="Molecular systematics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_systematics">molecular systematics</a>. The study of inherited features not strictly associated with changes in the <a title="DNA" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA">DNA</a> sequence is called <a title="Epigenetics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigenetics">epigenetics</a>.</p><p>Some take the view that <a title="Life" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life">life</a> can be defined, in <a title="Molecule" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecule">molecular</a> terms, as the set of strategies which <a title="RNA" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA">RNA</a> polynucleotides have used and continue to use to perpetuate themselves. This definition grows out of work on the <a title="Origin of life" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_life">origin of life</a>, specifically the <a title="RNA world hypothesis" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA_world_hypothesis">RNA world hypothesis</a>.</p><p><a id="Population.2C_quantitative_and_ecological_genetics" name="Population.2C_quantitative_and_ecological_genetics"></a>&nbsp;</p>

<dl><dd><em>Main articles:</em> <a titlebr type="Population genetics" href=_moz"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_genetics">Population genetics</a>, <a title="Quantitative genetics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantitative_genetics">Quantitative genetics</a>, <a title="Ecological genetics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_genetics">Ecological genetics</a> </dd></dl><p>Population, quantitative and ecological genetics are all very closely related subfields and also build upon classical genetics (supplemented with modern molecular genetics). They are chiefly distinguished by a common theme of studying <a title="Population" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population">populations</a> of organisms drawn from nature but differ somewhat in the choice of which aspect of the organism on which they focus. The foundational discipline is population genetics which studies the distribution of and change in <a title="Allele frequency" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allele_frequency">allele frequencies</a> of genes under the influence of the four evolutionary forces: <a title="Natural selection" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_selection">natural selection</a>, <a title="Genetic drift" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_drift">genetic drift</a>, <a title="Mutation" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutation">mutation</a> and <a title="Migration" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Migration">migration</a>. It is the theory that attempts to explain such phenomena as <a title="Adaptation (biology)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adaptation_%28biology%29">adaptation</a> and <a title="Speciation" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speciation">speciation</a>.</p><p>The related subfield of quantitative genetics, which builds on population genetics, aims to predict the response to <a title="Selection" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selection">selection</a> given data on the <a title="Phenotype" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenotype">phenotype</a> and relationships of individuals. A more recent development of quantitative genetics is the analysis of <a title="Quantitative trait loci" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantitative_trait_loci">quantitative trait loci</a>. Traits that are under the influence of a large number of genes are known as quantitative traits, and their mapping to a location on the <a title="Chromosome" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromosome">chromosome</a> requires accurate phenotypic, pedigree and marker data from a large number of related individuals.</p><p>Ecological genetics again builds upon the basic principles of population genetics but is more explicitly focused on <a title="Ecology" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecology">ecological</a> issues. While molecular genetics studies the structure and function of genes at a molecular level, ecological genetics focuses on wild populations of organisms, and attempts to collect data on the ecological aspects of individuals as well as molecular markers from those individuals.</p><p>Population genetics is closely linked with the methods of genetic epidemiology. One method to study gene-disease associations is using the principle of <a title="Mendelian randomization" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendelian_randomization">Mendelian randomization</a>.</p>

<div class="noprint"><em>Main article: <a title="Genomics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomics">Genomics</a></em>&nbsp;</div>

<p>A more recent development is the rise of <a title="Genomics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genomics">genomics</a>, which attempts the study of large-scale genetic patterns across the <a title="Genome" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome">genome</a> for (and in principle, all the DNA in) a given species. The field typically depends on the availability of whole genome sequences, computational tools and <a title="Sequence profiling tool" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence_profiling_tool">Sequence profiling tool</a> using <a title="Bioinformatics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioinformatics">bioinformatics</a> approaches for analysis of large sets of data.</p><p><a id="Closely-related_fields" name="Closely-related_fields"></a>&nbsp;</p>

<p>The science which grew out of the union of <a title="Biochemistry" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemistry">biochemistry</a> and genetics is widely known as <a title="Molecular biology" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology">molecular biology</a>. The term &quot;genetics&quot; is often widely conflated with the notion of <a title="Genetic engineering" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_engineering">genetic engineering</a>, where the DNA of an organism is modified for some kind of practical end, but most research in genetics is aimed at understanding and explaining the effect of genes on phenotypes and in the role of genes in populations (see <a title="Population genetics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_genetics">population genetics</a> and <a title="Ecological genetics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_genetics">ecological genetics</a>), rather than genetic engineering.</p><p><a id="References" name="References"></a>&nbsp;</p>

<li id="_note-Hartl_and_Jones">^ ^{<em><strong>a title="" href="http:</strong></en.wikipedia.orgem></wiki/Genetics#_ref-Hartl_and_Jones_0"sup>^{<em><strong>ab</strong></em>}</a> <a title=cite class="book" hrefstyle="httpfont-style://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_ref-Hartl_and_Jones_1normal;">^{Daniel Hartl and Elizabeth Jones (2005). <em><strong>b</strong>Genetics: Analysis of Genes and Genomes, 6th edition</em>. Jones &amp; Bartlett.</supcite></a> <cite span class="bookZ3988" styletitle="FONTctx_ver=Z39.88-STYLE: normal">Daniel Hartl and Elizabeth Jones (2005). <em>Genetics: Analysis of Genes and Genomes, 6th edition</em>. Jones 2004&amp; Bartlett.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.btitle=Genetics%3A+Analysis+of+Genes+and+Genomes%2C+6th+edition&amp;rft.title=Genetics%3A+Analysis+of+Genes+and+Genomes%2C+6th+edition&amp;rft.au=Daniel+Hartl+and+Elizabeth+Jones&amp;rft.date=2005&amp;rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett">&nbsp;</span> 854 pages. ISBN 0-7637-1511-5. <a class/li> <li id="internal_note-0" href><strong>^</strong> <cite class="book" style="httpfont-style://ennormal;">Robert C.wikipedia.orgKing, Willliam D. Stansfield, Pamela K. Mulligan (2006). <em>A Dictionary of Genetics, 7th edition</w/indexem>.php?title=SpecialNew York:Booksources&amp;isbn=0763715115">ISBN 0-7637-1511-5</a>Oxford University Press. </licite> <li idspan class="_note-0Z3988"><strong><a title="" hrefctx_ver="http://enZ39.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_ref88-0">^</a></strong> <cite class2004&amp;rft_val_fmt="book" styleinfo%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rft.genre="FONT-STYLE: normal">Robert Cbook&amp;rft. King, Willliam D. Stansfield, Pamela Kbtitle=A+Dictionary+of+Genetics%2C+7th+edition&amp;rft. Mulligan (2006). <em>title=A +Dictionary +of +Genetics, %2C+7th +edition</em>&amp;rft. New York: Oxford University Press.</cite><span classau="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39Robert+C.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info+King%3Aofi2C+Willliam+D.+Stansfield%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook2C+Pamela+K.+Mulligan&amp;rft.genredate=book2006&amp;rft.btitlepub=AOxford+DictionaryUniversity+of+Genetics%2C+7th+edition&ampPress&amp;rft.titleplace=ANew+Dictionary+of+Genetics%2C+7th+editionYork">&ampnbsp;rft</span> 596 pages.auISBN 0-19-530761-5 (paper).</li> <li id=Robert+C.+King%2C+Willliam+D.+Stansfield%2C+Pamela+K.+Mulligan&amp;rft.date=2006&amp;rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&amp;rft.place=New+York""_note-mendel">^ ^{<em><strong>a</strong></em>}&nbsp;</spansup> 596 pages. <a class="internal" href="http:em><strong>b</strong></en.wikipedia.orgem></w/index.php?titlesup> <cite style=Special"font-style:Booksources&ampnormal;isbn=0195307615">ISBN 0Mendel, G.. &quot;Versuche &uuml;ber Pflanzen-19-530761-5Hybriden&quot;. </aem> (paper)Verh. Naturforsch. Ver. Br&uuml;nn</liem> <strong> 4<li id="_note/strong>: 3-mendel"47.</cite>^ <a titlespan class="Z3988" hreftitle="http://enctx_ver=Z39.wikipedia88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.org/wiki/Genetics#_refatitle=Versuche+%C3%BCber+Pflanzen-mendel_0">^{<em><strong>a</strong></em>}</a> <a Hybriden&amp;rft.title="" hrefVerh.+Naturforsch.+Ver.+Br%C3%BCnn&amp;rft.jtitle="http://enVerh.+Naturforsch.wikipedia+Ver.org/wiki/Genetics#_ref-mendel_1"+Br%C3%BCnn&amp;rft.volume=4&amp;rft.au=Mendel%2C+G.&amp;rft.pages=3-47">&nbsp;<sup/span>(in English in 1901, J. R. Hortic. Soc. 26: 1&ndash;32)<em/li> <strongli id="_note-1">b</strong>^</emstrong>Online copy of William Bateson's letter to Adam Sedgwick</supli> </a> <cite styleli id="FONT_note-STYLE: normalbateson_genetics">Mendel, G.. &quot;Versuche &uuml;ber Pflanzen-Hybriden&quot;. <em>Verh. Naturforsch. Ver. Br&uuml;nn</^ ^{<em> <strong>4a</strong>: 3-47.</citeem>} ^{<em><strong>b</strong></em>}<span classcite style="Z3988font-style: normal;" title="ctx_ver=Z39>Bateson, William (1907).88-2004&ampquot;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3AjournalThe Progress of Genetic Research&ampquot;rft.atitle=Versuche+%C3%BCber+Pflanzen-Hybriden&amp;rftWilks, W.title=Verh.+Naturforsch.+Ver(editor) <em>Report of the Third 1906 International Conference on Genetics: Hybridization (the cross-breeding of genera or species), the cross-breeding of varieties, and general plant breeding</em>, London: Royal Horticultural Society.+Br</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%C33Amtx%BCnn3Abook&amp;rft.jtitlegenre=Verh.+Naturforsch.+Ver.+Br%C3%BCnnconference&amp;rft.volumebtitle=4&amp;rft.au=Mendel%2CReport+of+the+G.&amp;rft.pages=3Third+1906+International+Conference+on+Genetics%3A+Hybridization+%28the+cross-47">&nbsp;</span> (in English in 1901, Jbreeding+of+genera+or+species%29%2C+the+cross-breeding+of+varieties%2C+and+general+plant+breeding&amp;rft. Ratitle=The+Progress+of+Genetic+Research&amp;rft. Horticau=Bateson%2C+William&amp;rft. Soc. 26: 1date=1907&ndashamp;rft.pub=Royal+Horticultural+Society&amp;rft.place=London">&nbsp;32) </lispan> <li id="_note-1"dl><strongdd><Although the conference was titled &quot;International Conference on Hybridisation and Plant Breeding&quot;, Wilks changed the title for publication as a title="" href="http:result of Bateson's speech. </dd></en.wikipedia.orgdl></wiki/Genetics#_refli> <li id="_note-1dna_transforming">^}<em><strong>a></strong> <a class="external text" title="http:/em>} <sup><em><strong>b</www.jic.ac.ukstrong></corporateem></about/bateson.htm" relsup> <cite style="nofollow" href="httpfont-style://www.jic.ac.uk/corporate/about/bateson.htmnormal;">Online copy of William Bateson's letter to Adam Sedgwick</Avery, MacLeod, and McCarty (1944). &quot;Studies on the Chemical Nature of the Substance Inducing Transformation of Pneumococcal Types: Induction of Transformation by a> </li> Desoxyribonucleic Acid Fraction Isolated from Pneumococcus Type III&quot;. <li id="_note-bateson_genetics"em>^ Journal of Experimental Medicine<a title="" href="http:/em> <strong>79</en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_ref-bateson_genetics_0">^{<em><strong>a(1): 137-58.</strongcite></em>}</a> <a span class="Z3988" title="" hrefctx_ver="http://enZ39.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_ref88-bateson_genetics_1">^{<em><strong>b</strong></em>}</a> <cite style2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.atitle="FONT-STYLE: normal">Bateson, William (1907). &quot;The Progress Studies+on+the+Chemical+Nature+of Genetic Research&quot;. Wilks, W. (editor) <em>Report +the+Substance+Inducing+Transformation+of the Third 1906 International Conference on Genetics: Hybridization (the cross-breeding +Pneumococcal+Types%3A+Induction+of genera or species), the cross-breeding +Transformation+by+a+Desoxyribonucleic+Acid+Fraction+Isolated+from+Pneumococcus+Type+III&amp;rft.title=Journal+of varieties, and general plant breeding</em>, London: Royal Horticultural Society+Experimental+Medicine&amp;rft.</cite><span classjtitle="Z3988" titleJournal+of+Experimental+Medicine&amp;rft.date="ctx_ver=Z39.88-20041944&amp;rft_val_fmtrft.volume=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook79&amp;rft.genreissue=conference1&amp;rft.btitleau=Report+of+the+Third+1906+International+Conference+on+GeneticsAvery%3A+Hybridization2C+MacLeod%28the2C+cross-breedingand+of+genera+or+species%29%2C+the+crossMcCarty&amp;rft.pages=137-breeding+of+varieties%2C+and+general+plant+breeding58">&ampnbsp;rft.atitle</span>35th anniversary reprint available on <a href=The+Progress+of+Genetic+Research&amp;rft"http://www.all-auto.au=Bateson%2C+William&amp;rft.date=1907&amp;rft.pub=Royal+Horticultural+Society&amp;rft.place=London"ro/piese-auto">&nbsp;piese auto ieftine</spana> <dl/li> <li id="_note-sanger_sequencing">^ ^{<ddem><strong>a</strong>Although the conference was titled &quot;International Conference on Hybridisation and Plant Breeding&quot;, Wilks changed the title for publication as a result of Bateson's speech. </ddem></dlsup></lisup> <li id="_note-dna_transforming">^ <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_ref-dna_transforming_0">^{<emem><strong>ab</strong></em>}</a> <a title="" href="http://enSanger F, Air GM, Barrell BG, Brown NL, Coulson AR, Fiddes CA, Hutchison CA, Slocombe PM, Smith M.wikipedia.org, Nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage phi X174 DNA, Nature. 1977 Feb 24;265(5596):687-94</wiki/Genetics#_refli> <li id="_note-dna_transforming_1100_Years_Ago:_Walter_Sutton_and_the_Chromosome_Theory_of_Heredity"><supstrong><em><strong>b^</strong></em>}</a> <cite style="FONTfont-STYLEstyle: normal;">Avery, MacLeod, Ernest W. Crow and McCarty James F. Crow (19442002). &quot;Studies on 100 Years Ago: Walter Sutton and the Chemical Nature Chromosome Theory of the Substance Inducing Transformation of Pneumococcal Types: Induction of Transformation by a Desoxyribonucleic Acid Fraction Isolated from Pneumococcus Type IIIHeredity&quot;. <em>Journal of Experimental MedicineGenetics</em> <strong>79160</strong> (1): 137-58.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.atitle=Studies100+onYears+theAgo%3A+ChemicalWalter+NatureSutton+ofand+the+SubstanceChromosome+Inducing+TransformationTheory+of+Pneumococcal+Types%3A+Induction+of+Transformation+by+a+Desoxyribonucleic+Acid+Fraction+Isolated+from+Pneumococcus+Type+IIIHeredity&amp;rft.title=Genetics&amp;rft.titlejtitle=Journal+of+Experimental+Medicine&amp;rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Experimental+MedicineGenetics&amp;rft.date=19442002&amp;rft.volume=79160&amp;rft.issueau=1&amp;rftErnest+W.au=Avery%2C+MacLeod%2CCrow+and+McCartyJames+F.+Crow&amp;rftrft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.genetics.pages=137-58org%2Fcgi%2Fcontent%2Ffull%2F160%2F1%2F1">&nbsp;</span><a class/li> <li id="external text_note-2" title><strong>^</strong> <cite style="httpfont-style://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&ampnormal;cmd=Retrieve">Beadle GW, Tatum EL (1941). &ampquot;dopt=AbstractPlusGenetic control of biochemical reactions in neurospora&ampquot;list_uids=33226" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov<em>PNAS</entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&amp;cmd=Retrieve&amp;dopt=AbstractPlus&amp;list_uids=33226"em>35th anniversary reprint available</astrong> 27</listrong> <li id: 499-506.</cite><span class="_note-sanger_sequencingZ3988">^ <a title="" hrefctx_ver="http://enZ39.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_ref88-sanger_sequencing_0">^{<em><strong>a</strong></em>}</a> <a title2004&amp;rft_val_fmt="" href="http://eninfo%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.wikipediaatitle=Genetic+control+of+biochemical+reactions+in+neurospora&amp;rft.org/wiki/Genetics#_ref-sanger_sequencing_1"><sup><em><strong>b</strong>title=PNAS&amp;rft.jtitle=PNAS&amp;rft.date=1941&amp;rft.volume=27&amp;rft.au=Beadle+GW%2C+Tatum+EL&amp;rft.pages=499-506">&nbsp;</emspan></supli> <li id="_note-3"><strong>^</astrong> Sanger F, Air GM, Barrell BG, Brown NL, Coulson AR, Fiddes CA, Hutchison CA, Slocombe PM, Smith M<cite style="font-style: normal;">Watson JD and Crick FH (1953)., Nucleotide sequence &quot;Molecular structure of bacteriophage phi X174 DNA, nucleic acids; a structure for deoxyribose nucleic acid&quot;. <em>Nature. 1977 Feb 24;265(5596):687-94 </liem> <strong> 171<li id="_note/strong> (4356): 737-100_Years_Ago:_Walter_Sutton_and_the_Chromosome_Theory_of_Heredity">8.<strong/cite><a titlespan class="Z3988" hreftitle="http://enctx_ver=Z39.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_ref-100_Years_Ago:_Walter_Sutton_and_the_Chromosome_Theory_of_Heredity_0">^</a></strong> <cite style88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt="FONT-STYLE: normal">Ernest W. Crow and James F. Crow (2002). info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&quotamp;<a classrft.atitle="external text" title="http://wwwMolecular+structure+of+nucleic+acids%3B+a+structure+for+deoxyribose+nucleic+acid&amp;rft.geneticstitle=Nature&amp;rft.org/cgi/content/full/160/1/1" reljtitle=Nature&amp;rft.date="nofollow" href1953&amp;rft.volume="http://www171&amp;rft.genetics.org/cgi/content/full/160/1/1issue=4356&amp;rft.au=Watson+JD+and+Crick+FH&amp;rft.pages=737-8">100 Years Ago: Walter Sutton and the Chromosome Theory of Heredity&nbsp;</aspan>&quot;. <em/li>Genetics </emli id="_note-4"> <strong>160^</strong>.</cite><span class=style="Z3988font-style: normal;" title="ctx_ver=Z39>Meselson, M. and Stahl, F.W. (1958).88-2004&ampquot;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3AjournalThe Replication of DNA in Escherichia coli&ampquot;rft.atitle=100+Years+Ago%3A+Walter+Sutton+and+the+Chromosome+Theory+of+Heredity&amp;rft<em>PNAS</em> <strong>44</strong>: 671-82.title</cite><span class=Genetics&amp;rft"Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.jtitle=Genetics88-2004&amp;rft.daterft_val_fmt=2002info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.volumeatitle=160&amp;rft.au=ErnestThe+W.Replication+Crowof+andDNA+Jamesin+F.Escherichia+Crowcoli&amp;rft_idrft.title=http%3A%2F%2FwwwPNAS&amp;rft.geneticsjtitle=PNAS&amp;rft.org%2Fcgi%2Fcontent%2Ffull%2F160%2F1%2F1">date=1958&nbspamp;</span> </li> <li idrft.volume=44&amp;rft.au=Meselson%2C+M.+and+Stahl%2C+F.W.&amp;rft.pages="_note671-282">&nbsp;</span><strong/li> <a titleli id="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_ref_note-25"><strong>^</a></strongstrong> <cite style="FONTfont-STYLEstyle: normal;">Beadle GWMin Jou W, Haegeman G, Ysebaert M, Tatum EL Fiers W. (19411972). &quot;Genetic control Nucleotide sequence of biochemical reactions in neurospora&the gene coding for the bacteriophage MS2 coat protein&quot;. <em>PNASNature</em> <strong>27237</strong>(5350): 49982-5068.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.atitle=GeneticNucleotide+controlsequence+of+biochemicalthe+gene+coding+for+the+bacteriophage+reactionsMS2+incoat+neurosporaprotein&amp;rft.title=PNASNature&amp;rft.jtitle=PNASNature&amp;rft.date=19411972&amp;rft.volume=27237&amp;rft.issue=5350&amp;rft.au=BeadleMin+Jou+W%2C+Haegeman+G%2C+Ysebaert+GWM%2C+TatumFiers+ELW.&amp;rft.pages=49982-5068">&nbsp;</span> </li> <li id="_note-36"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_ref-3">^</a></strong> <cite style="FONTfont-STYLE: normal">Watson JD and Crick FH (1953). &quot;Molecular structure of nucleic acids; a structure for deoxyribose nucleic acid&quot;. <em>Nature</em> <strong>171</strong> (4356): 737-8.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.atitle=Molecular+structure+of+nucleic+acids%3B+a+structure+for+deoxyribose+nucleic+acid&amp;rft.title=Nature&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature&amp;rft.date=1953&amp;rft.volume=171&amp;rft.issue=4356&amp;rft.au=Watson+JD+and+Crick+FH&amp;rft.pages=737-8">&nbsp;</span> </li> <li id="_note-4"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_ref-4">^</a></strong> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Meselson, M. and Stahl, F.W. (1958). &quot;The Replication of DNA in Escherichia coli&quot;. <em>PNAS</em> <strong>44</strong>: 671-82.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.atitle=The+Replication+of+DNA+in+Escherichia+coli&amp;rft.title=PNAS&amp;rft.jtitle=PNAS&amp;rft.date=1958&amp;rft.volume=44&amp;rft.au=Meselson%2C+M.+and+Stahl%2C+F.W.&amp;rft.pages=671-82">&nbsp;</span> </li> <li id="_note-5"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_ref-5">^</a></strong> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Min Jou W, Haegeman G, Ysebaert M, Fiers W. (1972). &quot;Nucleotide sequence of the gene coding for the bacteriophage MS2 coat protein&quot;. <em>Nature</em> <strong>237</strong> (5350): 82-8.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.atitle=Nucleotide+sequence+of+the+gene+coding+for+the+bacteriophage+MS2+coat+protein&amp;rft.title=Nature&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature&amp;rft.date=1972&amp;rft.volume=237&amp;rft.issue=5350&amp;rft.au=Min+Jou+W%2C+Haegeman+G%2C+Ysebaert+M%2C+Fiers+W.&amp;rft.pages=82-8">&nbsp;</span> </li> <li id="_note-6"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_ref-6">^</a></strong> <cite style="FONT-STYLEstyle: normal;">Fiers W et al. (1976). &quot;Complete nucleotide-sequence of Bacteriophage MS2-RNA - primary and secondary structure of replicase gene&quot;. <em>Nature</em> <strong>260</strong>: 500-507.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.atitle=Complete+nucleotide-sequence+of+Bacteriophage+MS2-RNA+-+primary+and+secondary+structure+of+replicase+gene&amp;rft.title=Nature&amp;rft.jtitle=Nature&amp;rft.date=1976&amp;rft.volume=260&amp;rft.au=Fiers+W+et+al.&amp;rft.pages=500-507">&nbsp;</span> </li> <li id="_note-7"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics#_ref-7">^</a></strong> <a class="external free" title="http://www.genoscope.cns.fr/externe/English/Actualites/Presse/HGP/HGP_press_release-140403.pdf" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.genoscope.cns.fr/externe/English/Actualites/Presse/HGP/HGP_press_release-140403.pdf">http://www.genoscope.cns.fr/externe/English/Actualites/Presse/HGP/HGP_press_release-140403.pdf</a> </li>

<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a>&nbsp;</p>

<li><a title="Epigenetics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigenetics">Epigenetics</a> </li> <li><a title="Evolution" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution">Evolution</a> </li> <li><a title="List of genetics-related topics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_genetics-related_topics">List of genetics-related topics</a> </li> <li><a title="List of genetic engineering topics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_genetic_engineering_topics">List of genetic engineering topics</a> </li> <li><a title="Central dogma of molecular biology" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_dogma_of_molecular_biology">Central dogma of molecular biology</a> </li> <li><a title="Chimera (genetics)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimera_%28genetics%29">Chimerism</a> </li> <li><a title="Gene gun" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_gun">Gene gun</a> </li> <li><a title="Gene regulatory network" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_regulatory_network">Gene regulatory network</a> </li> <li><a title="Genetic counseling" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_counseling">Genetic counseling</a> </li> <li><a title="Genetic engineering" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_engineering">Genetic engineering</a> </li> <li><a title="Genetic screen" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_screen">Genetic screen</a> </li> <li><a title="Genetic testing" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_testing">Genetic testing</a> </li> <li><a title="List of publications in biology" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_publications_in_biology#Genetics">Important publications in genetics</a> </li> <li><a title="List of genetics research organizations" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_genetics_research_organizations">List of genetics research organizations</a> </li> <li><a title="List of geneticists" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_geneticists">List of geneticists</a> </li> <li><a title="Human mitochondrial genetics" href="http:<//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_mitochondrial_genetics"li>Human mitochondrial genetics </ali> [[Population genetics]]</li> <li><a title="Reprogenetics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reprogenetics">Reprogenetics</a> </li> <li><a title="Punnett square" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punnett_square">Punnett square</a> </li> <li><a title="Genetically modified food" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetically_modified_food">Genetically modified food</a> </li> <li><a title="Transgenic plants" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgenic_plants">Transgenic plants</a> </li>

<p><a id="Journals" name="Journals"></a>&nbsp;</p>

<li><em><a title="American Journal of Human Genetics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Journal_of_Human_Genetics">American Journal of Human Genetics</a></em> </li> <li><em><a class="new" title="American Journal of Medical Genetics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American_Journal_of_Medical_Genetics&amp;action=edit">American Journal of Medical Genetics</a></em> </li> <li><em><a title="Annals of Human Genetics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annals_of_Human_Genetics">Annals of Human Genetics</a></em> </li> <li><em><a title="European Journal of Human Genetics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Journal_of_Human_Genetics">European Journal of Human Genetics</a></em> </li> <li><em><a title="Genome Research" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome_Research">Genome Research</a></em> </li> <li><em><a class="new" title="Genomics (journal)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Genomics_%28journal%29&amp;action=edit">Genomics</a></em> </li> <li><em><a title="Genetics (journal)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics_%28journal%29">Genetics</a></em> </li> <li><em><a title="Heredity (journal)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heredity_%28journal%29">Heredity</a></em> </li> <li><em><a class="new" title="Human Molecular Genetics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Human_Molecular_Genetics&amp;action=edit">Human Molecular Genetics</a></em> </li> <li><em><a title="Journal of Genetics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Genetics">Journal of Genetics</a></em> </li> <li><em><a class="new" title="Journal of Human Genetics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Journal_of_Human_Genetics&amp;action=edit">Journal of Human Genetics</a></em> </li> <li><em><a class="new" title="Journal of Medical Genetics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Journal_of_Medical_Genetics&amp;action=edit">Journal of Medical Genetics</a></em> </li> <li><em><a title="Nature Reviews Genetics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_Reviews_Genetics">Nature Reviews Genetics</a></em> </li> <li><em><a title="PLoS Genetics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PLoS_Genetics">PLoS Genetics</a></em> </li>

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