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Neuro science

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<p><strong>Neuroscience</strong> is a field that is devoted to the scientific study of the nervous system. Such studies may include the structure, function, evolutionary history, development, genetics, biochemistry, physiology, pharmacology, and pathology of the nervous system. Traditionally it is seen as a branch of biological sciences. However, recently there has been a surge in the convergence of interest from many allied disciplines, including cognitive- and neuro-psychology, computer science, statistics, physics, and medicine. The scope of neuroscience has now broadened to include any systematic scientific experimental and theoretical investigation of the central and peripheral nervous system of biological organisms. The methodologies employed by neuroscientists have been enormously expanded, from biochemical and genetic analysis of dynamics of individual nerve cells and their molecular constituents to imaging representations of perceptual and motor tasks in the brain.</p>

<p>Neuroscience is at the frontier of investigation of the brain and mind. The study of the brain is becoming the cornerstone in understanding how we perceive and interact with the external world and, in particular, how human experience and human biology influence each other.</p>

<h2><span class="mw-headline">Overview</span></h2>

<p>The scientific study of the nervous systems underwent a significant increase in the second half of the twentieth century, principally due to revolutions in molecular biology, neural networks and computational neuroscience. It has become possible to understand, in exquisite detail, the complex processes occurring inside a single neuron and in a network that eventually produces the intellectual behavior, cognition, emotion and physiological responses.</p>

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<td valign="top" width="20" style="~~PADDING-RIGHT~~padding: 10px; ~~PADDING~~text-~~LEFT~~align: ~~10px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 35px; PADDING-BOTTOM: 10px; COLOR: #b2b7f2; PADDING-TOP: 10px~~left; ~~FONT~~font-~~FAMILY~~family: 'Times New Roman',serif; ~~TEXT~~color: rgb(178, 183, 242); font-size: 35px; font-~~ALIGN~~weight: ~~left" valign="top" width="20~~bold;">“</td> <td valign="top" style="~~PADDING-RIGHT: 10px; PADDING-LEFT~~padding: 4px 10px; ~~PADDING-BOTTOM: 4px; PADDING-TOP: 4px" valign="top~~">The task of neural science is to explain behavior in terms of the activities of the brain. How does the brain marshal its millions of individual nerve cells to produce behavior, and how are these cells influenced by the environment...? The last frontier of the biological sciences--their ultimate challenge--is to understand the biological basis of consciousness and the mental processes by which we perceive, act, learn, and remember. — Eric Kandel, <em>Principles of Neural science</em>, fourth edition</td> <td valign="bottom" width="20" style="~~PADDING-RIGHT~~padding: 10px; ~~PADDING~~text-~~LEFT~~align: ~~10px; FONT-WEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 36px~~right; ~~PADDING~~font-~~BOTTOM: 10px; COLOR: #b2b7f2; PADDING-TOP: 10px; FONT-FAMILY~~family: 'Times New Roman',serif; ~~TEXT~~color: rgb(178, 183, 242); font-~~ALIGN~~size: ~~right" valign="bottom" width="20~~36px; font-weight: bold;">”</td>

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<p>At the systems level, the questions addressed in systems neuroscience include how the circuits are formed and used anatomically and physiologically to produce the physiological functions, such as reflexes, sensory integration, motor coordination, emotional responses, learning and memory, et cetera. In other words, they address how these neural circuits function and the mechanisms through which behaviors are generated. For example, systems level analysis addresses questions concerning specific sensory and motor modalities: how does vision work? How do songbirds learn new songs and bats localize with ultrasound? The related field of neuroethology, in particular, addresses the complex question of how neural substrates underlies specific animal behavior.</p>

<div class="thumbcaption">Animation of a stack of horizontal MRI sections of a normal adult human brain</div>

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<p>At the cognitive level, cognitive neuroscience addresses the questions of how psychological/cognitive functions are produced by the neural circuitry. The emergence of powerful new measurement techniques such as neuroimaging (e.g.,fMRI, PET, SPECT), electrophysiology and human genetic analysis combined with sophisticated experimental techniques from cognitive psychology allows neuroscientists and psychologists to address abstract questions such as how human cognition and emotion are mapped to specific neural circuitries.<a rel="dofollow" href="http://www.all-auto.ro/auto-second-hand" title="vanzari auto"><img src="http://www.all-auto.ro/images/auto second hand" alt="vanzari auto" hspace="2" vspace="2" border="0" /></a></p>

<p>Neuroscience is also beginning to become allied with social sciences, and burgeoning interdisciplinary fields of neuroeconomics, decision theory, social neuroscience are starting to address some of the most complex questions involving interactions of brain with environment.</p>

<p><strong>Neuroscience</strong> generally includes all scientific studies involving the nervous system. <strong>Psychology</strong>, as the scientific study of mental processes, may be considered a sub-field of neuroscience, although some mind/body theorists argue that the definition goes the other way — that psychology is a study of mental processes that can be modeled by many other abstract principles and theories, such as behaviorism and traditional cognitive psychology, that are independent of the underlying neural processes. The term <strong>neurobiology</strong> is sometimes used interchangeably with <strong>neuroscience</strong>, though the former refers to the biology of nervous system, whereas the latter refers to science of mental functions that form the foundation of the constituent neural circuitries. In <em>Principles of Neural Science</em>, nobel laureate Eric Kandel contends that cognitive psychology is one of the pillar disciplines for understanding the brain in neuroscience.</p>

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<p>Evidence of trepanation, the surgical practice of either drilling or scraping a hole into the skull with the aim of curing headaches or mental disorders or relieving cranial pressure, being performed on patients dates back to Neolithic times and has been found in various cultures throughout the world. Manuscripts dating back to 5000BC indicated that the Egyptians had some knowledge about symptoms of brain damage.</p>

<p>Early views on the function of the brain regarded it to be a "cranial stuffing" of sorts. In Egypt, from the late Middle Kingdom onwards, the brain was regularly removed in preparation for mummification. It was believed at the time that the heart was the seat of intelligence. According to Herodotus, during the first step of mummification: 'The most perfect practice is to extract as much of the brain as possible with an iron hook, and what the hook cannot reach is mixed with drugs.'<sup class="noprint Template-Fact"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable ~~sourcesÃÂ since~~ sources since February 2007" style="~~WHITE~~white-~~SPACE~~space: nowrap;">[<em>citation needed</em>]</span></sup></p>

<p>The view that the heart was the source of consciousness was not challenged until the time of Hippocrates. He believed that the brain was not only involved with sensation, since most specialized organs (e.g., eyes, ears, tongue) are located in the head near the brain, but was also the seat of intelligence. Aristotle, however, believed that the heart was the center of intelligence and that the brain served to cool the blood. This view was generally accepted until the Roman physician Galen, a follower of Hippocrates and physician to Roman gladiators, observed that his patients lost their mental faculties when they had sustained damage to their brains.</p>

<p>In Al-Andalus, Abulcasis, the father of modern surgery, developed material and technical designs which are still used in neurosurgery. Averroes suggested the existence of Parkinson's disease and attributed photoreceptor properties to the retina. Avenzoar described meningitis, intracranial thrombophlebitis, mediastinal tumours and made contributions to modern neuropharmacology. Maimonides wrote about neuropsychiatric disorders and described rabies and belladonna intoxication.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-0"><font color="#800080">[1]</font></sup></p>

<h2><span class="mw-headline">Allied and Overlapping Fields</span></h2>

<p>Neuroscience, by its very interdiciplinary nature, overlaps with and encompasses many different subjects. Below is a list of related subjects and fields.</p>

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<h3><span class="mw-headline">Textbooks</span></h3>

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<li><cite class="book" id="Reference-Bear-2001" style="~~FONT~~font-~~STYLE~~style: normal;">Bear, M.F.; B.W. Connors, and M.A. Paradiso (2001). <em>Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain</em>. Baltimore: Lippincott. ISBN 0-7817-3944-6.</cite><span ~~class="Z3988"~~ title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neuroscience%3A+Exploring+the+Brain&rft.aulast=Bear&rft.aufirst=M.F.&rft.date=2001&rft.pub=Lippincott&rft.place=Baltimore" class="Z3988"> </span> </li> <li><cite class="book" id="Reference-Kandel-2000" style="~~FONT~~font-~~STYLE~~style: normal;">Kandel, ER; Schwartz JH, Jessell TM (2000). <em>Principles of Neural Science</em>, 4th ed., New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-8385-7701-6.</cite><span ~~class="Z3988"~~ title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%5B%5BPrinciples+of+Neural+Science%5D%5D&rft.aulast=Kandel&rft.aufirst=ER&rft.date=2000&rft.edition=4th+ed.&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.place=New+York" class="Z3988"> </span> </li>

<li>Squire, L. <em>et al.</em> (2003). <em>Fundamental Neuroscience, 2nd edition</em>. Academic Press; ISBN 0-12-660303-0 </li>

<li>Byrne and Roberts (2004). <em>From Molecules to Networks</em>. Academic Press; ISBN 0-12-148660-5 </li>

<h3><span class="mw-headline">Popular works</span></h3>

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<li><cite class="book" id="Reference-Andreasen-2004" style="~~FONT~~font-~~STYLE~~style: normal;">Andreasen, Nancy C. (March 4 2004). <em>Brave New Brain: Conquering Mental Illness in the Era of the Genome</em>. Oxford University Press. 392 pages, 56 halftones & line illus.; 8 color plates, 234x154 mm. ISBN 9780195145090.</cite><span ~~class="Z3988"~~ title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Brave+New+Brain%3A+Conquering+Mental+Illness+in+the+Era+of+the+Genome&rft.aulast=Andreasen&rft.aufirst=Nancy+C.&rft.date=2004&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press.++392+pages%2C+56+halftones+%26+line+illus.%3B+8+color+plates%2C+234x154+mm&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oup.com%2Fuk%2Fcatalogue%2F%3Fci%3D9780195145090" class="Z3988"> </span> </li>

<li>Damasio, A. R. (1994). <em>Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain.</em> New York, Avon Books. ISBN 0-399-13894-3 (Hardcover) ISBN 0-380-72647-5 (Paperback) </li>

<li>Gardner, H. (1976). <em>The Shattered Mind: The Person After Brain Damage.</em> New York, Vintage Books, 1976 ISBN 0-394-71946-8 </li>

<li>Intro to Neuroscience - Smith College Spring 2005 </li>

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<h2><span class="mw-headline">External links</span></h2>

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<li>[http://neurome.org Neurome.org] </li>

<li><a ~~class="external text" title~~href="http://brainmaps.org/" rel="nofollow" ~~href~~title="http://brainmaps.org/" class="external text">High-Resolution Cytoarchitectural Primate Brain Atlases</a> </li> <li><a ~~class="external text" title~~href="http://www.sfn.org/" rel="nofollow" ~~href~~title="http://www.sfn.org/" class="external text">Society for Neuroscience</a> </li> <li><a ~~class="external text" title~~href="http://www.hindawi.com/journals/np/" rel="nofollow" ~~href~~title="http://www.hindawi.com/journals/np/" class="external text">Neural Plasticity-Open Access Journal</a> (Hindawi Publishing) </li> <li><a ~~class="external text" title~~href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov~~:80~~/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&rid=neurosci.TOC&depth=2" rel="nofollow" ~~href~~title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov:80/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&rid=neurosci.TOC&depth=2" class="external text">Neuroscience. 2nd ed.</a> by Purves et al (online textbook) </li> <li><a ~~class="external text" title~~href="http://www.neurosciencenews.com/" rel="nofollow" ~~href~~title="http://www.neurosciencenews.com/" class="external text">Neuroscience News, Books, Links, Forum and Gifts</a> </li> <li><a ~~class="external text" title~~href="http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/neurok.html" rel="nofollow" ~~href~~title="http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/neurok.html" class="external text">Neuroscience for Kids</a> </li> <li><a ~~class="external text" title~~href="http://cerebralhealth.com/neuroscienceresearch.php" rel="nofollow" ~~href~~title="http://cerebralhealth.com/neuroscienceresearch.php" class="external text">Brain Research and Information Network B.R.A.I.N.</a> </li> <li><a ~~class="external text" title~~href="http://www.carthage.edu/admissions/majors/index.cfm?ID=23" rel="nofollow" ~~href~~title="http://www.carthage.edu/admissions/majors/index.cfm?ID=23" class="external text">Undergraduate Neuroscience major at Carthage College</a> <a href="http://www.all-auto.ro/asigurari-auto">rca ieftin</a></li>

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