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<p><strong>Metagenomics</strong> (also <strong>Environmental Genomics</strong>, <strong>Ecogenomics</strong> or <strong>Community Genomics</strong>) is the study of genetic material recovered directly from environmental samples. Traditional microbiology and microbial genome sequencing rely upon cultivated clonal cultures. This relatively new field of genetic research enables studies of organisms that are not easily cultured in a laboratory as well as studies of organisms in their natural environment.</p>
<p>An interesting overview of metagenomics is &quot;Welcome to life on the tiniest scales&quot;&nbsp;; written by Henry Nicholls, in March 17th 2007 New Scientist magazine (paid).</p>
<p>Early environmental gene sequencing cloned specific genes (often the 16S rRNA gene) to produce a profile of diversity in a natural sample. Such work revealed that the vast majority of microbial diversity had been missed by cultivation-based methods. <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Hugenholz1998_0-0">[1]</sup> Recent studies use &quot;shotgun&quot; Sanger sequencing or chip-based pyrosequencing to get (mostly) unbiased samples of all genes from all members of sampled communities.</p>
<p>&nbsp;</p>      <div idh2><span class="kbektt12867" style="overflow:auto;height:1px;mw-headline">[http:History</span></www.carookee.com/forum/retau/ buy ambien]h2>[http:<p>&nbsp;</p><h3><span class="mw-headline">Origin of the term</www.carookee.comspan></forum/sokos/ buy adipex]h3>[http://www<p>The term &quot;metagenomics&quot; was first used by Jo Handelsman and others in the University of Wisconsin Department of Plant Pathology, and first appeared in publication in 1998.carookee.com/forum/darrik/ buy xenical<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Handelsman1998_1-0">[2][http:</sup> The term <strong>metagenome</wwwstrong> referenced the idea that a collection of genes sequenced from the environment could be analyzed in way analogous to the study of a single genome.carookeeThe exploding interest in environmental genetics, along with the buzzword-like nature of the term, has resulted in the broader use of <strong>metagenomics</strong> to describe any sequencing of genetic material from environmental (i.com/forum/spokido/ ambien rx][http://wwwe.carookeeuncultured) samples, even work that focuses on one organism or gene.comRecently, Kevin Chen and Lior Pachter (researchers at the University of California, Berkeley) defined metagenomics as &quot;the application of modern genomics techniques to the study of communities of microbial organisms directly in their natural environments, bypassing the need for isolation and lab cultivation of individual species.&quot; <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Chen2005_2-0">[3]</forumsup></trikos/ free ringtones]p>[http:<p>&nbsp;<//elitrix.net/terah/index.php buy ambien]p>[http:<h3><span class="mw-headline">Environmental gene surveys</span></elitrixh3><p>Conventional sequencing begins with a culture of identical cells as a source of DNA.net/skolp/indexHowever, early metagenomic studies revealed that there are probably large groups of microorganisms in many environments that cannot be cultured and thus cannot be sequenced. These early studies focused on 16S ribosomal RNA sequences which are relatively short, often conserved within a species, and generally different between species.php buy adipex][http://elitrixMany 16S rRNA sequences have been found which do not belong to any known cultured species, indicating that there are numerous non-isolated organisms out there.net</olla/index.php buy xanax]p>[http://elitrix<p>Early molecular work in the field was conducted by Norman R.net/derit/indexPace and colleagues, who used PCR to explore the diversity of ribosomal RNA sequences.php buy xenical<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Lane1985_3-0">[4][http:<//elitrixsup> The insights gained from these breakthrough studies led Pace to propose the idea of cloning DNA directly from environmental samples as early as 1985.net/eriop/index.php order phentermine<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Pace1985_4-0">[5][http:<//elitrix.net/fagoo/index.php buy valium]sup> This led to the first report of isolating and cloning bulk DNA from an environmental sample, published by Pace and colleagues in 1991 <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Pace1991_5-0">[http://elitrix.net/travo/index.php buy tramadol6][http:<//cgisup> while Pace was in the Department of Biology at Indiana University.cholConsiderable efforts ensured that these were not PCR false positives and supported the existence of a complex community of unexplored species.com/~rantrave/cgiAlthough this methodology was limited to exploring highly conserved, non-protein coding genes, it did support early microbial morphology-binbased observations that diversity was far more complex than was known by culturing methods.</robboard.cgi?action=displayp><p>Soon after that, Healy reported the metagenomic isolation of functional genes from &numquot;zoolibraries&quot; constructed from a complex culture of environmental organisms grown in the laboratory on dried grasses in 1995. <sup class=16333 buy ambien"reference" id="cite_ref-Healy1995_6-0">[7][http:<//cgisup> After leaving the Pace laboratory, Ed DeLong continued in the field and has published work that has largely laid the groundwork for environmental phylogenies based on signature 16S sequences, beginning with his group's construction of libraries from marine samples.chol.com/~rantrave/cgi-bin/robboard.cgi?action<sup class=display&num"reference" id=16334 buy adipex]"cite_ref-Stein1996_7-0">[http:8]</sup></cgi.chol.comp><p>&nbsp;</~rantravep><h3><span class="mw-headline">Longer sequences from environmental samples</cgi-binspan></robboardh3><p>Recovery of DNA sequences longer than a few thousand base pairs from environmental samples was very difficult until recent advances in molecular biological techniques, particularly related to constructing libraries in bacterial artificial chromosomes (BACs), provided better vectors for molecular cloning.cgi?action<sup class=display&num"reference" id=16335 buy xanax"cite_ref-Beja2000_8-0">[9][http:</sup></cgi.chol.comp><p>&nbsp;</~rantravep><h3><span class="mw-headline">Shotgun metagenomics</cgi-binspan></robboard.cgi?actionh3><p>Advances in bioinformatics, refinements of DNA amplification, and proliferation of computational power have greatly aided the analysis of DNA sequences recovered from environmental samples. These advances have enabled the adaptation of shotgun sequencing to metagenomic samples. The approach, used to sequence many cultured microorganisms as well as the human genome, randomly shears DNA, sequences many short sequences, and reconstructs them into a consensus sequence. In 2002, Mya Breitbart, Forest Rohwer, and colleagues used environmental shotgun sequencing to show that 200 liters of seawater contains over 5000 different viruses. <sup class=display&num"reference" id=16336 buy xenical"cite_ref-Breitbart2002_9-0">[10][http:<//cgisup> Subsequent studies showed that there are &gt;1000 viral species in human stool and possibly a million different viruses per kilogram of marine sediment, including many bacteriophages.cholEssentially all of the viruses in these studies were new species.com/~rantrave/cgi-bin/robboardA 2004 metagenomic study of the Sargasso Sea found DNA from nearly 2000 different species including 148 types of bacteria never seen before.cgi?action<sup class=display&num"reference" id=16337 order phentermine][http:"cite_ref-Venter2004_10-0">[11]</sup></return2indiap><p>Also in 2004, Gene Tyson, Jill Banfield, and colleagues at the University of California, Berkeley and the Joint Genome Institute sequenced DNA extracted from an acid mine drainage system.com<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Tyson2004_11-0">[12]</HyperNews/get/forums/shipping/2146/8sup> This effort resulted in the complete, or nearly complete, genomes for a handful of bacteria and archaea that had previously resisted attempts to culture them. It was now possible to study entire genomes without the biases associated with laboratory cultures.html buy ambien<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Hugenholz2002_12-0">[13][http:</sup></return2indiap><p>In 2006 Robert Edwards, Forest Rohwer, and colleagues at San Diego State University published the first sequences of environmental samples generated with so-called next generation sequencing, in this case chip based pyrosequencing developed by 454 Life Sciences.com<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Edwards2006_13-0">[14]</HyperNews/getsup> This technique for sequencing the DNA generates shorter fragments than the conventional techniques, however this limitation is compensated for by the very large number of sequences generated. In addition, this technique does not require cloning the DNA before sequencing, removing one of the main biases in metagenomics.</forums/shipping/2146/9p><p>In 2007, Daniel Huson and Stephan Schuster developed and published the first stand-alone metagenome analysis tool, MEGAN, which can be used to perform a first analysis of a metagenomic shotgun dataset.html buy xanaxThis tool was originally developed to analyse the metagenome of a mammoth sample <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-14">[15][http:<//return2indiasup>.com</HyperNews/get/forums/shipping/2146/10.html buy xenicalp><p>In 2007, Folker Meyer and Robert Edwards and a team at Argonne National Laboratory and the University of Chicago released the Metagenomics RAST server (MG-RAST) a community resource for metagenome data set analysis <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Meyer2008_15-0">[16][http:<//return2indiasup> The SEED based free, public resource contains 158 public metagenome data sets (as of September 2008) and has so far been used for the analysis of several hundred metagenome data sets.com</HyperNewsp><p>&nbsp;</get/forums/shipping/2146/11.html buy cialis]p>[http:<h2><span class="mw-headline">Microbial Diversity</span></return2indiah2><p>Much of the interest in metagenomics comes from the discovery that the vast majority of microorganisms had previously gone unnoticed.com/HyperNews/get/forums/shipping/2146/12Traditional microbiological methods relied upon laboratory cultures of organisms.html buy valium][http://return2indiaSurveys of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes taken directly from the environment revealed that cultivation based methods find less than 1% of the bacteria and archaea species in a sample.com/HyperNews<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Hugenholz1998_0-1">[1]</getsup></forumsp><p>&nbsp;</shippingp><h2><span class="mw-headline">Gene Surveys</2146span></13h2><p>Shotgun sequencing and screens of clone libraries reveal genes present in environmental samples.html buy tramadol][http://return2indiaThis provides information both on which organisms are present and what metabolic processes are possible in the community.com/HyperNews/get/forums/shipping/2146/14This can be helpful in understanding the ecology of a community, particularly if multiple samples are compared to each other.html buy carisoprodol<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Allen2005_16-0">[17][http:</sup></return2india.comp><p>&nbsp;</HyperNewsp><h2><span class="mw-headline">Environmental Genomes</getspan></forums/shipping/2146/15.html buy hydrocodone]h2>[http://www<p>Shotgun metagenomics also is capable of sequencing nearly complete microbial genomes directly from the environment.carm.es<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Tyson2004_11-1">[12]</op/HyperNews/get/forums/MapServer/6/3/1sup> Because the collection of DNA from an environment is largely uncontrolled, the most abundant organisms types in a sample are most highly represented in the resulting sequence data. To achieve the high coverage needed to fully resolve the genomes of underrepresented community members, large samples, often prohibitively so, are needed.html motorola ringtones][http://wwwOn the other hand, the random nature of shotgun sequencing ensures that many of these organisms will be represented by at least some small sequence segments.carmDue to the limitations of microbial isolation methods, the vast majority of these organisms would go unnoticed using traditional culturing techniques.es</opp><p>&nbsp;</HyperNews/get/forums/MapServerp><h2><span class="mw-headline">Community metabolism</6span></3/2h2><p>Many bacterial communities show significant division of labor in metabolism. Waste products of some organisms are metabolites for others. Working together they turn raw resources into fully metabolized waste. Using comparative gene studies and expression experiments with microarrays or proteomics researchers can piece together a metabolic network that goes beyond species boundaries.html free sprint ringtones][http://wwwSuch studies require detailed knowledge about which versions of which proteins are coded by which species and even by which strains of which species.carmTherefore, community genomic information is another fundamental part (as metabolomics or proteomics) to be able to estimate how metabolites are possibly transferred and transformed through a community.es</opp><p>&nbsp;</HyperNews/get/forums/MapServerp><h2><span class="mw-headline">References</6span></3/3.html verizon ringtones]h2><div class="references-small">[http://www.carm.es/op/HyperNews/get/forums/MapServer<ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Hugenholz1998-0">^ <sup><em><strong>a</6strong></3em></4.html free nokia ringtones][http:sup> <sup><em><strong>b</strong></wwwem></sup> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Hugenholz, P; Goebel BM, Pace NR (1998). &quot;Impact of culture-independent studies on the emerging phylogenetic view of bacterial diversity&quot;.carm<em>J.esBacteriol</opem> <strong>180</HyperNewsstrong>: 4765&ndash;4774. PMID 9733676.</get/forums/MapServer/6/3/5cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.html free ringtones][http://www88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.carmgenre=article&amp;rft.es/op/HyperNews/get/forums/MapServer/6/3/6atitle=Impact+of+culture-independent+studies+on+the+emerging+phylogenetic+view+of+bacterial+diversity&amp;rft.html nextel ringtones][http://wwwjtitle=J.carm+Bacteriol&amp;rft.es/op/HyperNews/get/forums/MapServer/6/3/7date=1998&amp;rft.html buy ambien][http://wwwvolume=180&amp;rft.carmaulast=Hugenholz&amp;rft.es/op/HyperNews/get/forums/MapServer/6/3/8aufirst=P&amp;rft.html order phentermine][httppages=4765%E2%80%934774&amp;rft_id=info:pmid//www9733676&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pubmedcentral.nih.carmgov%2Farticlerender.esfcgi%3Ftool%3Dpubmed%26pubmedid%3D9733676"><span style="DISPLAY: none">&nbsp;</opspan></HyperNewsspan> </getli> <li id="cite_note-Handelsman1998-1"><strong>^</forums/MapServer/6/3/9strong> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Handelsman, J; Rondon MR, Brady SF, Clardy J, Goodman RM (1998).html ambien rx][http&quot;Molecular biological access to the chemistry of unknown soil microbes://wwwa new frontier for natural products&quot;.carm.es<em>Chemistry &amp; Biology</op/HyperNews/get/forums/MapServer/6/3em> <strong>5</strong>: 245&ndash;249. doi:<span class="neverexpand">10.html cheap phentermine][http:1016/S1074-5521(98)90108-9</wwwspan>.carm.es</op/HyperNews/get/forums/MapServer/6/3/11cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.html buy adipex][http://wwwgenre=article&amp;rft.carmatitle=Molecular+biological+access+to+the+chemistry+of+unknown+soil+microbes%3A+a+new+frontier+for+natural+products&amp;rft.es/op/HyperNews/get/forums/MapServer/6/3/12jtitle=Chemistry+%26amp%3B+Biology&amp;rft.date=1998&amp;rft.volume=5&amp;rft.html buy xenical][http://wwwaulast=Handelsman&amp;rft.carmaufirst=J&amp;rft.espages=245%26ndash%3B249&amp;rft_id=info:doi/op/HyperNews/get/forums/MapServer/6/3/1310.html buy cialis][http1016%2FS1074-5521%2898%2990108-9"><span style="DISPLAY:none">&nbsp;</span></wwwspan>.carm.es</op/HyperNews/get/forums/MapServer/6li> <li id="cite_note-Chen2005-2"><strong>^</3/14.html buy valium][httpstrong> <cite style="FONT-STYLE://wwwnormal">Chen, K; 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</div>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline">Additional References</span></h2>
<p><font size="2"></font></p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline">Review articles</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>Edwards RA, &amp; Rohwer F. Viral metagenomics. Nat Rev Microbiol. 2005 3(6):504-10. PubMed </li>
<li>Eisen, J. A. (2007). Environmental shotgun sequencing: its potential and challenges for studying the hidden world of microbes. <em>PLoS Biology 5(3): e82</em> </li>
<li>Green, B. D. &amp; Keller, M. (2006). Capturing the uncultivated majority. <em>Current Opinion in Biotechnology</em> 17[3], 236-240. </li>
<li>Handelsman J. (2004). Metagenomics: application of genomics to uncultured microorganisms. <em>Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews</em> <strong>68</strong>:669-685. </li>
<li>Keller, M. &amp; Sengler, K. (2004). Tapping into microbial diversity. Nature Reviews Microbiology 2[2], 141-150. </li>
<li>Lombard, N. <em>et al.</em> (2006). The metagenomics of microbial communities. <em>Biofutur</em> 24-7. </li>
<li>Riesenfeld, C. S. <em>et al.</em> (2004). Metagenomics: genomic analysis of microbial communities. <em>Annu Rev Genet</em> <strong>38</strong>: 525-52. </li>
<li>Rodriguez Valera, F. (2002). Approaches to prokaryotic biodiversity: a population genetics perspective. <em>Environmental Microbiology</em> <strong>4</strong>: 628-33. </li>
<li>Rodriguez-Valera. (2004). Environmental genomics, the big picture?. <em>FEMS Microbiology Letters</em> <strong>231</strong>:153-158. </li>
<li>Torsvik, V. &amp; Ovreas, L. (2002). Microbial diversity and function in soil: from genes to ecosystems. <em>Current opinion in Microbiology</em> <strong>5</strong>: 240-5. </li>
<li>Whitaker, R. J. &amp; Banfield, J. F. (2006). Population genomics in natural microbial communities. <em>Trends in Ecology &amp; Evolution</em> <strong>21</strong>: 508-16. </li>
<li>Worden, A. Z. <em>et al.</em> (2006). In-depth analyses of marine microbial community genomics. <em>Trends in Microbiology</em> <strong>14</strong>: 331-6. </li>
<li>Xu, J. P. (2006). Microbial ecology in the age of genomics and metagenomics: concepts, tools, and recent advances. <em>Molecular Ecology</em> <strong>15</strong>: 1713-31. </li>
</ul>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline">Methods</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>Beja, O. <em>et al.</em> (2000). Construction and analysis of bacterial artificial chromosome libraries from a marine microbial assemblage. <em>Environmental Microbiology</em> <strong>2</strong>: 516-29. </li>
<li>Sebat, J. L. <em>et al.</em> (2003). Metagenomic profiling: Microarray analysis of an environmental genomic library. <em>Applied and Environmental Microbiology</em> <strong>69</strong>: 4927-34. </li>
<li>Suzuki, M. T. <em>et al.</em> (2004). Phylogenetic screening of ribosomal RNA gene-containing clones in bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) libraries from different depths in Monterey Bay. <em>Microbial Ecology</em> <strong>48</strong>: 473-88. </li>
</ul>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline">Bioinformatics</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>Krause L., Diaz N.N., Goesmann A., Kelley S., Nattkemper T.W., Rohwer F., Edwards R.A., Stoye J. Phylogenetic classification of short environmental DNA fragments. Nucleic Acids Res. 36:2230-9, 2008 </li>
<li>Huson, D.H., A. Auch, Ji Qi and S.C. Schuster, MEGAN Analysis of Metagenomic Data, Genome Research. 17:377-386, 2007 </li>
<li>Krause L, Diaz NN, Bartels D, Edwards RA, Puhler A, Rohwer F, Meyer F, Stoye J. Finding novel genes in bacterial communities isolated from the environment. Bioinformatics. 2006 15;22(14):e281-9. </li>
<li>Rodriguez-Brito B, Rohwer F, Edwards RA. An application of statistics to comparative metagenomics. BMC Bioinformatics. 2006 20;7:162. </li>
<li>Raes, J., Foerstner, K.U. &amp; Bork, P. (2007) Get the most out of your metagenome: computational analysis of environmental sequence data. Curr Opin Microbiol, in press. </li>
<li>Harrington, E.D., Singh, A.H., Doerks, T., Letunic, I., von Mering, C., Jensen, L.J., Raes, J. &amp; Bork, P. (2007) Quantitative assessment of protein function predicion from metagenomics shotgun sequences. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 104, 13913-8 </li>
<li>Tress, M. L. <em>et al.</em> (2006). An analysis of the Sargasso Sea resource and the consequences for database composition. <em>Bmc Bioinformatics</em> <strong>7</strong> </li>
<li>Foerstner KU, von Mering C, Hooper SD, Bork P (2005) Environments shape the nucleotide composition of genomes. EMBO Rep. 6(12): 1208-13 </li>
<li>Raes, J., Korbel, J.O., Lercher, M.J., Von Mering, C. &amp; Bork, P. (2007) Prediction of effective genome size in metagenomic samples. Genome Biology 8, R10 [1] </li>
<li>von Mering, C., Hugenholtz, P., Raes, J., Tringe, S.G., Doerks, T., Jensen, L.J., Ward N. &amp; Bork, P. (2007) Quantitative phylogenetic assessment of microbial communities in diverse environments. Science 315, 1126-1130 </li>
<li>Mavromatis K, Ivanova N, Barry K, Shapiro H, Goltsman E, McHardy AC, Rigoutsos I, Salamov A, Korzeniewski F, Land M, Lapidus A, Grigoriev I, Richardson P, Hugenholtz P, Kyrpides NC. (2007) Use of simulated data sets to evaluate the fidelity of metagenomic processing methods. Nat Methods. 4(6):495-500 </li>
<li>Markowitz VM, Ivanova N, Palaniappan K, Szeto E, Korzeniewski F, Lykidis A, Anderson I, Mavromatis K, Kunin V, Garcia Martin H, Dubchak I, Hugenholtz P, Kyrpides NC. (2006) An experimental metagenome data management and analysis system. Bioinformatics. 22(14):e359-67 </li>
<li>Markowitz VM, Ivanova NN, Szeto E, Palaniappan K, Chu K, Dalevi D, Chen IM, Grechkin Y, Dubchak I, Anderson I, Lykidis A, Mavromatis K, Hugenholtz P, Kyrpides NC. (2007) IMG/M: a data management and analysis system for metagenomes. Nucleic Acids Res. Epub </li>
<li>Pushker R., D'Auria G., Alba-Casado J.C. and Rodr&iacute;guez-Valera F. (2005) Micro-Mar: a database for dynamic representation of marine microbial biodiversity. BMC Bioinformatics, 6:222. </li>
</ul>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline">Marine ecosystems</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>Angly, F. E. <em>et al.</em> (2006). The marine viromes of four oceanic regions. <em>PloS Biology</em> <strong>4</strong>: 2121-31. </li>
<li>Beja, O. <em>et al.</em> (2000). Bacterial rhodopsin: Evidence for a new type of phototrophy in the sea. <em>Science</em> <strong>289</strong>: 1902-6. </li>
<li>Beja, O. <em>et al.</em> (2001). Proteorhodopsin phototrophy in the ocean. <em>Nature</em> <strong>411</strong>: 786-9. </li>
<li>Beja, O. <em>et al.</em> (2002). Unsuspected diversity among marine aerobic anoxygenic phototrophs. <em>Nature</em> <strong>415</strong>: 630-3. </li>
<li>Culley, A. I. <em>et al.</em> (2006). Metagenomic analysis of coastal RNA virus communities. <em>Science</em> <strong>312</strong>: 1795-8. </li>
<li>DeLong, E. F. <em>et al.</em> (2006). Community genomics among stratified microbial assemblages in the ocean's interior. <em>Science</em> <strong>311</strong>: 496-503. </li>
<li>Hallam, S. J. <em>et al.</em> (2006). Genomic analysis of the uncultivated marine crenarchaeote Cenarchaeum symbiosum. <em>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America</em> <strong>103</strong>: 18296-301. </li>
<li>John, D. E. <em>et al.</em> (2006). Gene diversity and organization in rbcL-containing genome fragments from uncultivated <em>Synechococcus</em> in the Gulf of Mexico. <em>Marine Ecology-Progress Series</em> <strong>316</strong>: 23-33. </li>
<li>Kannan N. <em>et al.</em> (2007). Structural and Functional Diversity of the Microbibial Kinome. <em>PloS Biology</em> <strong>5</strong>: 467-478 </li>
<li>Rusch D. B. <em>et al.</em> (2007). The Sorcerer II Global Ocean Sampling Expedition: Northwest Atlantic through Eastern Tropical Pacific. <em>PloS Biology</em> <strong>5</strong>: 398-431 </li>
<li>Tringe, S. G. <em>et al.</em> (2005). Comparative metagenomics of microbial communities. <em>Science</em> <strong>308</strong>: 554-7. </li>
<li>Woyke, T. <em>et al.</em> (2006). Symbiosis insights through metagenomic analysis of a microbial consortium. <em>Nature</em> <strong>443</strong>: 950-5. </li>
<li>Yooseph S. <em>et al.</em> (2007). The Sorcerer II Global Ocean Sampling Expedition: Expanding the Universe of Protein Families. 'PloS Biology <em><strong>5</strong>: 432-466</em> </li>
<li>Yutin, N. &amp; Beja, O. (2005). Putative novel photosynthetic reaction centre organizations in marine aerobic anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria: insights from metagenomics and environmental genomics. <em>Environmental Microbiology</em> <strong>7</strong>: 2027-33. </li>
</ul>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline">Sediments</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>Abulencia, C. B., Wyborski, D. L., Garcia, J. A., Podar, M., Chen, W., Chang, S. H. et al. (2006). Environmental whole-genome amplification to access microbial populations in contaminated sediments. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 72[5], 3291-3301. </li>
<li>Breitbart et al. (2004). <em>Diversity and population structure of a nearshore marine sediment viral community</em>. Proceedings of the Royal Society B <strong>271</strong>: 565-574. </li>
</ul>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline">Extreme environments</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>Baker, B. J. <em>et al.</em> (2006). Lineages of acidophilic archaea revealed by community genomic analysis. <em>Science</em> <strong>314</strong>: 1933-5. </li>
</ul>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline">Medical Sciences and biotechnological applications</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>Breitbart et al. (2003). <em>Metagenomic analyses of an uncultured viral community from human feces</em>. Journal of Bacteriology <strong>185</strong>:6220-6223. </li>
<li>Breitbart, M. and Rohwer, F. (2005) Method for discovering novel DNA viruses in blood using viral particle selection and shotgun sequencing. BioTechniques, 39, 729-736. </li>
<li>Gill, S. R. <em>et al.</em> (2006). Metagenomic analysis of the human distal gut microbiome. <em>Science</em> <strong>312</strong>: 1355-9. </li>
<li>Mathur, E., Toledo, G., Green, B. D., Podar, M., Richardson, T. H., Kulwiec (2005). A biodiversity-based approach to development of performance enzymes: Applied metagenomics and directed evolution. Industrial Biotechnology, 1, 283-287. </li>
<li>Schloss, P. D. &amp; Handelsman, J. (2003). Biotechnological prospects from metagenomics. <em>Current Opinion in Biotechnology</em> <strong>14</strong>: 303-10. </li>
<li>Zengler, K., Paradkar, A., &amp; Keller, M. (2005). New methods to access microbial diversity for small molecule discovery. Natural Products , 275-293. </li>
<li>Zhang, T., Breitbart, M., Lee, W.H., Run, J.Q., Wei, C.L., Soh, S.W., Hibberd, M.L., Liu, E.T., Rohwer, F. and Ruan, Y. (2006) <em>RNA viral community in human feces: prevalence of plant pathogenic viruses</em>. PLoS biology, <strong>4</strong>, e3. </li>
</ul>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<h3><span class="mw-headline">Ancient DNA</span></h3>
<ul>
<li>H. N. Poinar, C. Schwarz, Ji Qi, B. Shapiro, R. D. E. MacPhee, B. Buigues, A. Tikhonov, D. H. Huson, L. P. Tomsho, A. Auch, M. Rampp, W. Miller, S. C. Schuster, Metagenomics to Paleogenomics: Large-Scale Sequencing of Mammoth DNA, Science 311:392-394, 2006 </li>
</ul>
<p>&nbsp;</p>
<h2><span class="mw-headline">External links</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><a class="external text" title="http://www-ab.informatik.uni-tuebingen.de/software/megan/" rel="nofollow" href="http://www-ab.informatik.uni-tuebingen.de/software/megan/">MEGAN</a> MEtaGenome ANalyzer. A stand-alone metagenome analysis tool. </li>
<li><a class="external text" title="http://dels.nas.edu/metagenomics/" rel="nofollow" href="http://dels.nas.edu/metagenomics/">Metagenomics and Our Microbial Planet</a> A website on metagenomics and the vital role of microbes on Earth from the <a class="external text" title="http://nationalacademies.org" rel="nofollow" href="http://nationalacademies.org/">National Academies.</a> </li>
<li><a class="external text" title="http://books.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=11902" rel="nofollow" href="http://books.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=11902">The New Science of Metagenomics: Revealing the Secrets of Our Microbial Planet</a> A report released by the National Research Council in March 2007. Also, see the <a class="external text" title="http://dels.nas.edu/dels/rpt_briefs/metagenomics_brief_final.pdf" rel="nofollow" href="http://dels.nas.edu/dels/rpt_briefs/metagenomics_brief_final.pdf">Report In Brief.</a> </li>
<li><a class="external text" title="http://img.jgi.doe.gov/m" rel="nofollow" href="http://img.jgi.doe.gov/m">IMG/M</a> The Integrated Microbial Genomes system, for metagenome analysis by the DOE-JGI. </li>
<li><a class="external text" title="http://camera.calit2.net/index.php" rel="nofollow" href="http://camera.calit2.net/index.php">CAMERA</a> Cyberinfrastructure for Metagenomics, data repository and tools for metagenomics research. </li>
<li><a class="external text" title="http://www.scq.ubc.ca/?p=509" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.scq.ubc.ca/?p=509">A good overview of metagenomics from the Science Creative Quarterly</a> </li>
<li><a class="external text" title="http://www.genomesonline.org/gold.cgi?want=Metagenomes" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.genomesonline.org/gold.cgi?want=Metagenomes">list of Metagenome Projects from genomesonline.org</a> </li>
<li><a class="external text" title="http://metagenomics.theseed.org" rel="nofollow" href="http://metagenomics.theseed.org/">The SEED</a> publicly available, free, metagenomics annotation pipeline for pyrosequences, Sanger sequences, and other sequence approaches. </li>
<li><a title="Human microbiome project" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_microbiome_project"><font color="#810081">Human microbiome project</font></a> </li>
<li><a class="external text" title="http://www.metahit.eu/" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.metahit.eu/">MetaHIT</a> official website for the EU-funded project&nbsp;: Metagenomics of the Human Intestinal Tract </li>
<li><a class="external text" title="http://annotathon.univ-mrs.fr/" rel="nofollow" href="http://annotathon.univ-mrs.fr/">Annotathon</a> Bioinformatics Training Through Metagenomic Sequence Annotation </li>
</ul>
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