Changes

<p>The <strong>Fungi</strong> (singular <strong>fungus</strong>) are a <a title="Kingdom (biology)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_%28biology%29" title="Kingdom (biology)">kingdom</a> of <a title="Eukaryote" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotic</a> <a title="Organism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a>. They are <a title="Heterotrophic" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterotrophic" title="Heterotrophic">heterotrophic</a> and digest their food externally, absorbing <a title="Nutrient" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nutrient" title="Nutrient">nutrient</a> <a title="Molecule" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a> into their <a title="Cell (biology)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_%28biology%29" title="Cell (biology)">cells</a>. <a title="Yeasts" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeasts" title="Yeasts">Yeasts</a>, <a title="Molds" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molds" title="Molds">molds</a>, and <a title="Mushrooms" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushrooms" title="Mushrooms">mushrooms</a> are examples of fungi. The branch of <a title="Biology" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biology</a> involving the study of fungi is known as <a title="Mycology" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycology" title="Mycology">mycology</a>.</p><p>Fungi often have important <a title="Symbiotic" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbiotic" title="Symbiotic">symbiotic</a> relationships with other organisms. <a title="Mycorrhizal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycorrhizal" title="Mycorrhizal">Mycorrhizal</a> symbiosis between <a title="Plants" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plants" title="Plants">plants</a> and fungi is particularly important; over 90% of all plant species engage in some kind of mycorrhizal relationship with fungi and are dependent upon this relationship for survival.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-0" class><a title="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_note-0" title="">[1]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="_ref-1" class><a title="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_note-1" title="">[2]</a></sup> Fungi are also used extensively by humans: <a title="Yeast" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast">yeasts</a> are responsible for <a title="Fermentation (food)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermentation_%28food%29" title="Fermentation (food)">fermentation</a> of <a title="Beer" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beer" title="Beer">beer</a> and <a title="Bread" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bread" title="Bread">bread</a>, and <a title="Mushroom" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushroom" title="Mushroom">mushroom</a> farming and gathering is a large industry in many countries.</p><p>Fungi and <a title="Bacteria" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> are the primary <a title="Decomposers" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decomposers" title="Decomposers">decomposers</a> of <a title="Organic material" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_material" title="Organic material">organic matter</a> in most terrestrial <a title="Ecosystem" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystems</a>. There are an estimated 1.5 million species of fungi with around 70,000 of them having been described.<sup id="_ref-2" class="reference"><a hrefid="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_note_ref-2" title="">[3]</a></sup></p><table id="toc" class="toc" summary="Contents"> <tbody> <tr> <td> <div id="toctitle"> <h2><span class="toctoggle"><br /> </span></h2> </div> <ul> <li classtitle="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Phylogeny_and_classification_of_fungi"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Phylogeny and classification of fungi</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel_note-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Types_of_fungi"><span class="tocnumber">1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Types of fungi</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Morphology"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Morphology</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Reproduction"><span class="tocnumber">[3</span> <span class="toctext">Reproduction</span>]</a></lisup> <li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Ecological_role"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Ecological role</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Human_uses_of_fungi"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Human uses of fungi</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Edible_and_poisonous_fungi"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Edible and poisonous fungi</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Fungi_in_the_biological_control_of_pests"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Fungi in the biological control of pests</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#References"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">External l</span></a></li> </ul> </td> </tr> </tbody></tablep>

<p><a nameid="Phylogeny_and_classification_of_fungi" idname="Phylogeny_and_classification_of_fungi"></a></p>

<p>Fungi were originally classified as <a title="Plant" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a>, however they have since been separated as they are <a title="Heterotroph" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">heterotrophs</a>. This means they do not fix their own carbon through <a title="Photosynthesis" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>, but use carbon fixed by other organisms for <a title="Metabolism" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metabolism" title="Metabolism">metabolism</a>. Fungi are now thought to be more closely related to <a title="Animal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a> than to plants, and are placed with animals in the <a title="Monophyletic" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monophyletic" title="Monophyletic">monophyletic</a> group of <a title="Opisthokont" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opisthokont" title="Opisthokont">opisthokonts</a>. For much of the <a title="Paleozoic" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a> Era, the fungi appear to have been aquatic. The first land fungi probably appeared in the <a title="Silurian" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</a>, right after the first <a title="Embryophyte" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embryophyte" title="Embryophyte">land plants</a> appeared even though their <a title="Fossil" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossils</a> are fragmentary. For some time after the <a title="Permian-Triassic extinction event" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permian-Triassic_extinction_event" title="Permian-Triassic extinction event">Permian-Triassic extinction event</a>, the fungi went into a fungal spike because they were the dominant life forms - nearly 100% of the available record.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-eshet_0" class><a title="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_note-eshet" title="">[4]</a></sup> Fungi absorb their food while animals <a title="Ingestion" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ingestion" title="Ingestion">ingest</a> it; also unlike animals, the cells of fungi have <a title="Cell wall" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">cell walls</a>. For these reasons, these organisms are placed in their own <a title="Kingdom (biology)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_%28biology%29" title="Kingdom (biology)">kingdom</a>, Fungi, or <strong>Eumycota</strong>.</p><p>The Fungi are a <a title="Monophyletic" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monophyletic" title="Monophyletic">monophyletic</a> group, meaning all varieties of fungi come from a <a title="Common descent" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">common ancestor</a>. The monophyly of the fungi has been confirmed through repeated tests of <a title="Molecular phylogenetics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_phylogenetics" title="Molecular phylogenetics">molecular phylogenetics</a>; shared ancestral traits include <a title="Chitinous" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chitinous" title="Chitinous">chitinous</a> cell walls and heterotrophy by absorption, along with other shared characteristics.</p><p>The <a title="Taxonomy" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy" title="Taxonomy">taxonomy</a> of the Fungi is in a state of rapid flux at present, especially due to recent papers based on DNA comparisons, which often overturn the assumptions of the older systems of classification.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-3" class><a title="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_note-3" title="">[5]</a></sup><sup class="reference" id="_ref-4" class><a title="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_note-4" title="">[6]</a></sup></p><p>There is no unique generally accepted system at the higher taxonomic levels and there are constant name changes at every level, from species upwards. Fungal species can also have multiple scientific names depending on its life cycle. Web sites such as <a title="Index Fungorum" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_Fungorum" title="Index Fungorum">Index Fungorum</a>, <a title="ITIS" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITIS" title="ITIS">ITIS</a> and <a class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Fungi" href="http://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Fungi" class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Fungi">Wikispecies</a> define preferred up-to-date names (with cross-references to older synonyms), but do not always agree with each other or with names in Wikipedia in its various language variants.</p><p><a nameid="Types_of_fungi" idname="Types_of_fungi"></a></p>

<p>The major divisions (<a title="Phylum" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phyla</a>) of fungi are mainly classified based on their sexual <a title="Reproduction" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">reproductive</a> structures. Currently, five divisions are recognized:</p>

<div class="thumbinner" style="widthWIDTH: 182px;"><a class="internal" title="Arbuscular mycorrhiza seen under microscope. Flax root cortical cells containing paired arbuscules." href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Wn8-05-2.JPG" class="internal" title="Arbuscular mycorrhiza seen under microscope. Flax root cortical cells containing paired arbuscules."><img widthclass="180thumbimage" height="135" alt="Arbuscular mycorrhiza seen under microscope. Flax root cortical cells containing paired arbuscules." width="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Wn8-05-2.JPG" class="thumbimage" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/73/Wn8-05-2.JPG/180px-Wn8-05-2.JPG" /></a>

<div class="magnify" style="floatFLOAT: right;"><a class="internal" title="Enlarge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Wn8-05-2.JPG" class><img height="internal11" titlealt="Enlarge"><img width="15" height="11" src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" /></a></div><em><a title="Arbuscular mycorrhiza" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbuscular_mycorrhiza" title="Arbuscular mycorrhiza">Arbuscular mycorrhiza</a></em> seen under microscope. <a title="Flax" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flax" title="Flax">Flax</a> root cortical cells containing paired arbuscules.</div>

<div class="thumbinner" style="widthWIDTH: 182px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Aspergillus.jpg" class="internal" title="Conidiophores of molds of the genus Aspergillus, an ascomycete, seen under microscope." href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Aspergillus.jpg"><img widthclass="180thumbimage" height="120" alt="Conidiophores of molds of the genus Aspergillus, an ascomycete, seen under microscope." width="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Aspergillus.jpg" class="thumbimage" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Aspergillus.jpg/180px-Aspergillus.jpg" /></a>

<div class="magnify" style="floatFLOAT: right;"><a class="internal" title="Enlarge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Aspergillus.jpg" class><img height="internal11" titlealt="Enlarge"><img width="15" height="11" src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" /></a></div><a title="Conidiophore" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conidiophore" title="Conidiophore">Conidiophores</a> of molds of the genus <em><a title="Aspergillus" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspergillus" title="Aspergillus">Aspergillus</a></em>, an ascomycete, seen under microscope.</div>

<li>The <a title="Chytridiomycota" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chytridiomycota" title="Chytridiomycota">Chytridiomycota</a> are commonly known as chytrids. These fungi produce zoospores that are capable of moving on their own through liquid menstrua by simple <a title="Flagellum" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flagellum" title="Flagellum">flagella</a>.</li> <li>The <a title="Zygomycota" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zygomycota" title="Zygomycota">Zygomycota</a> are known as zygomycetes and reproduce sexually with meiospores called zygospores and asexually with sporangiospores. <a title="Black bread mold" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_bread_mold" title="Black bread mold">Black bread mold</a> (<em>Rhizopus stolonifer</em>) is a common species that belongs to this group; another is <em><a title="Pilobolus" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilobolus" title="Pilobolus">Pilobolus</a></em>, which shoots specialized structures through the air for several meters. Medically relevant genera include <em>Mucor</em>, <em>Rhizomucor</em>, and <em>Rhizopus</em>. <a title="Molecular phylogenetic" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_phylogenetic" title="Molecular phylogenetic">Molecular phylogenetic</a> investigation has shown the zygomycota to be a <a title="Polyphyletic" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphyletic" title="Polyphyletic">polyphyletic</a> group.</li> <li>Members of the <a title="Glomeromycota" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeromycota" title="Glomeromycota">Glomeromycota</a> are also known as the <a title="Arbuscular mycorrhizae" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbuscular_mycorrhizae" title="Arbuscular mycorrhizae">arbuscular mycorrhizal</a> fungi. Only one species has been observed forming zygospores; all other species only reproduce asexually. This is an ancient association, with evidence dating to 400 million years ago.</li> <li>The <a title="Ascomycota" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota">Ascomycota</a>, commonly known as sac fungi or ascomycetes, form meiotic spores called ascospores, which are enclosed in a special sac-like structure called an <a title="Ascus" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascus" title="Ascus">ascus</a>. This division includes <a title="Morel" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morel" title="Morel">morels</a>, some <a title="Mushroom" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushroom" title="Mushroom">mushrooms</a> and <a title="Truffle" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truffle" title="Truffle">truffles</a>, as well as single-celled <a title="Yeast" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast">yeasts</a> and many species that have only been observed undergoing asexual reproduction. Because the products of meiosis are retained within the sac-like ascus, several ascomyctes have been used for elucidating principles of genetics and heredity (e.g. <em><a title="Neurospora crassa" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurospora_crassa" title="Neurospora crassa">Neurospora crassa</a></em>).</li> <li>Members of the <a title="Basidiomycota" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basidiomycota" title="Basidiomycota">Basidiomycota</a>, commonly known as the club fungi or basidiomycetes, produce meiospores called <a title="Basidiospore" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basidiospore" title="Basidiospore">basidiospores</a> on club-like stalks called <a title="Basidium" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basidium" title="Basidium">basidia</a>. Most common <a title="Mushroom" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushroom" title="Mushroom">mushrooms</a> belong to this group, as well as <a title="Rust (fungus)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rust_%28fungus%29" title="Rust (fungus)">rust (fungus)</a> and <a title="Smut (fungus)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smut_%28fungus%29" title="Smut (fungus)">smut fungi</a>, which are major pathogens of grains.</li>

<p>Although the <a title="Water mold" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_mold" title="Water mold">water molds</a> and <a title="Slime mold" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slime_mold" title="Slime mold">slime molds</a> have traditionally been placed in the kingdom Fungi and those who study them are still called mycologists, they are not true fungi. Unlike true fungi, the water molds and slime molds do not have cell walls made of <a title="Chitin" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitin</a>. In the <a title="Kingdom (biology)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_%28biology%29" title="Kingdom (biology)">5-kingdom system</a>, they are currently placed in the kingdom <a title="Protist" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">Protista</a>. Water moulds are descended from algae, and are placed within the phylum <a title="Oomycota" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oomycota" title="Oomycota">Oomycota</a>, within the Kingdom Protista.</p><p><a nameid="Morphology" idname="Morphology"></a></p>

<div class="thumbinner" style="widthWIDTH: 202px;"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:DecayingPeachSmall.gif" class="internal" title="Mold covering a decaying peach over a period of six days. The frames were taken approximately 12 hours apart." href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:DecayingPeachSmall.gif"><img widthclass="200thumbimage" height="190" alt="Mold covering a decaying peach over a period of six days. The frames were taken approximately 12 hours apart." width="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:DecayingPeachSmall.gif" class="thumbimage" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/DecayingPeachSmall.gif" /></a>

<p>Though fungi are part of the <a title="Opisthokont" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opisthokont" title="Opisthokont">opisthokont</a> clade, all phyla except for the chytrids have lost their posterior flagella.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-5" class><a title="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_note-5" title="">[7]</a></sup> Fungi are unusual among the eukaryotes in having a cell wall of <a title="Chitin" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chitin" title="Chitin">chitin</a>. All fungi are made up of many thin thread-like structures called <a title="Hypha" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypha" title="Hypha">hyphae</a>. These hyphae can be one of two types: septate, or coenocytic. Septate hyphae have &quot;walls&quot; between their cells, called septa, though these septa have holes that allow cytoplasm, organelles, and sometimes nuclei to pass through. Coenocytic hyphae have no such marked divisions between cells. Coenocytic hyphae are essentially multinucleate supercells. Parasitic fungi have special structures on their hyphae called haustoria, which penetrate directly into a host organism's cells, allowing nutrients to be taken by the fungus. All of a fungus's hyphae form a structure called the <a title="Mycelium" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycelium" title="Mycelium">mycelium</a>. In mushroom forming fungi, the mycelium is normally underground. In molds, the mycelium forms directly on the food source. The only fungi that do not form hyphae or mycleia are yeasts, which are unicellular.</p><p>Fungi, unlike animals and vascular plants, do not spend the majority of their life cycle in a <a title="Diploid" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diploid" title="Diploid">diploid</a> condition. When a spore begins to grow into a mycelium, the organism is <a title="Haploid" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haploid" title="Haploid">haploid</a>. The haploid mycelium may or may not produce haploid spores asexually. When one haploid organism encounters another, through growth of the mycelium, since fungi are not motile, the two may merge, in a process called plasmogamy. The fungi then enter a heterokaryotic, or multinucleate stage. Usually, one nucleus from one parent fungus will pair off with one nucleus from the other parent. Some fungi spend most of their life cycle in this stage. At a given time, the paired off nuclei will merge, in a process called karyogamy, producing a diploid nucleus. This will normally happen in a separate reproductive structure; in basidiomycetes and ascomycetes, the mushroom. The diploid nucleus will then undergo meiosis to produce haploid nuclei, which are then released as spores to start the cycle once again.</p><p><a nameid="Reproduction" idname="Reproduction"></a></p>

<div class="thumbinner" style="widthWIDTH: 182px;"><a class="internal" title="Fungi on a fence post near Orosí, Costa Rica." href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:DirkvdM_barbed_fungus.jpg" class="internal" title="Fungi on a fence post near Orosí, Costa Rica."><img widthclass="180thumbimage" height="145" alt="Fungi on a fence post near Orosí, Costa Rica." width="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:DirkvdM_barbed_fungus.jpg" class="thumbimage" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/DirkvdM_barbed_fungus.jpg/180px-DirkvdM_barbed_fungus.jpg" /></a>

<div class="magnify" style="floatFLOAT: right;"><a class="internal" title="Enlarge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:DirkvdM_barbed_fungus.jpg" class><img height="internal11" titlealt="Enlarge"><img width="15" height="11" src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" /></a></div>Fungi on a fence post near <a title="Orosí" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oros%C3%AD" title="Orosí">Oros&iacute;</a>, Costa Rica.</div>

<p>Fungi may reproduce sexually or asexually. In <a title="Asexual reproduction" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asexual_reproduction" title="Asexual reproduction">asexual reproduction</a>, the <a title="Offspring" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offspring" title="Offspring">offspring</a> are genetically identical to the &ldquo;parent&rdquo; organism (they are <a hreftitle="httpCloning" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloning" title="Cloning">clones</a>). During <a title="Sexual reproduction" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual reproduction</a>, a mixing of <a hreftitle="httpGene" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genetic material</a> occurs so that the offspring exhibit traits of both parents. Many species can use both strategies at different times, while others are apparently strictly sexual or strictly asexual. Sexual reproduction has not been observed in some fungi of the <a title="Glomeromycota" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glomeromycota" title="Glomeromycota">Glomeromycota</a> and <a title="Ascomycota" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascomycota" title="Ascomycota">>Ascomycota</a>. These are commonly referred to as Fungi imperfecti or <a title="Deuteromycota" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deuteromycota" title="Deuteromycota">Deuteromycota</a>.</p><p>Yeasts and other unicellular fungi can reproduce simply by <a title="Budding" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Budding" title="Budding">budding</a>, or &ldquo;pinching off&rdquo; a new cell. Many multicellular species produce a variety of different asexual spores that are easily dispersed and resistant to harsh environmental conditions. When the conditions are right, these spores will <a title="Germination" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germination" title="Germination">germinate</a> and colonize new <a title="Habitat (ecology)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_%28ecology%29" title="Habitat (ecology)">habitats</a>.</p><p>Sexual reproduction in fungi is somewhat different from that of animals or plants, and each fungal division reproduces using different strategies. Fungi that are known to reproduce sexually all have a <a title="Haploid" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haploid" title="Haploid">haploid</a> stage and a <a title="Diploid" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diploid" title="Diploid">diploid</a> stage in their life cycles. Ascomycetes and basidiomycetes also go through a <a title="Dikaryotic" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dikaryotic" title="Dikaryotic">>dikaryotic</a> stage, in which the <a title="Cell nucleus" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">nuclei</a> inherited by the two parents do not fuse right away, but remain separate in the hyphal cells (see <a title="Heterokaryosis" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterokaryosis" title="Heterokaryosis">heterokaryosis>heterokaryosis</a>).</p><p>In zygomycetes, the haploid hyphae of two compatible individuals fuse, forming a <a title="Zygote" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zygote" title="Zygote">zygote</a>, which becomes a resistant <a title="Zygospore" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zygospore" title="Zygospore">zygospore</a>. When this zygospore germinates, it quickly undergoes <a title="Meiosis" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiosis" title="Meiosis">meiosis</a>, generating new haploid hyphae and asexual <a class="new" title="Sporangiospore" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sporangiospore&amp;action=edit" class="new" title="Sporangiospore">sporangiospores<>sporangiospores</a>. These sporangiospores may then be distributed and germinate into new genetically-identical individuals, each producing their own haploid hyphae. When the hyphae of two compatible individuals come into contact with one another, they will fuse and generate new zygospores, thus completing the cycle.</p><p>In ascomycetes, when compatible haploid hyphae fuse with one another, their nuclei do not immediately fuse. The dikaryotic hyphae form structures called <a title="Ascus" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascus" title="Ascus">asci</a> (<em>sing.</em> ascus), in which <a title="Karyogamy" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karyogamy" title="Karyogamy">>karyogamy</a> (nuclear fusion) occurs. These asci are embedded in an <a title="Ascocarp" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ascocarp" title="Ascocarp">ascocarp</a>, or fruiting body, of the fungus. Karyogamy in the asci is followed immediately by meiosis and the production of ascospores. The ascospores are disseminated and germinate to form new haploid mycelium. Asexual <a title="Conidium" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conidium" title="Conidium">conidia</a> may be produced by the haploid mycelium. Many ascomycetes appear to have lost the ability to reproduce sexually and reproduce only via conidia.</p><p>Sexual reproduction in basidiomycetes is similar to that of ascomycetes. Sexually compatible haploid hyphae fuse to produce a dikaryotic mycelium. This leads to the production of a <a title="Basidiocarp" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basidiocarp" title="Basidiocarp">basidiocarp</a>.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-6" class><a title="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_note-6" title="">[8]</a></sup> The most commonly-known basidiocarps are mushrooms, but they may also take many other forms. Club-like structures known as <a title="Basidia" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basidia" title="Basidia">basidia</a> generate haploid <a title="Basidiospores" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basidiospores" title="Basidiospores">basidiospores</a> following karyogamy and meiosis. These basidiospores then germinate to produce new haploid mycelia.</p><p><a nameid="Ecological_role" idname="Ecological_role"></a></p>

<div class="thumbinner" style="widthWIDTH: 202px;"><a class="internal" title="Polypores growing on a tree in Borneo" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Fungi_in_Borneo.jpg" class="internal" title="Polypores growing on a tree in Borneo"><img widthclass="200thumbimage" height="267" alt="Polypores growing on a tree in Borneo" width="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Fungi_in_Borneo.jpg" class="thumbimage" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Fungi_in_Borneo.jpg/200px-Fungi_in_Borneo.jpg" /></a>

<div class="magnify" style="floatFLOAT: right;"><a class="internal" title="Enlarge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Fungi_in_Borneo.jpg" class><img height="internal11" titlealt="Enlarge"><img width="15" height="11" src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" /></a></div><a title="Polypores" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polypores" title="Polypores">Polypores</a> growing on a tree in Borneo</div>

<p>Although often inconspicuous, fungi occur in every environment on <a title="Earth" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> and play very important roles in most <a title="Ecosystems" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystems" title="Ecosystems">ecosystems</a>. Along with bacteria, fungi are the major <a title="Decomposers" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decomposers" title="Decomposers">>decomposers</a> in most terrestrial (and some aquatic) ecosystems, and therefore play a critical role in <a title="Biogeochemical cycles" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycles" title="Biogeochemical cycles">biogeochemical cycles</a> and in many <a title="Food webs" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_webs" title="Food webs">>food webs</a>.</p><p>Many fungi are important as partners in <a title="Symbiotic" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbiotic" title="Symbiotic">symbiotic</a> relationships with other organisms, as <a title="Mutualists" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutualists" title="Mutualists">mutualists</a>, <a title="Parasites" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasites" title="Parasites">parasites</a>, or <a title="Commensalists" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commensalists" title="Commensalists">commensalists</a>, as well as in symbiotic relationships that do not fall neatly into any of these categories. One of the most important of these relationships are various types of <a title="Mycorrhiza" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycorrhiza" title="Mycorrhiza">>mycorrhiza</a>, which is a kind of mutualistic relationship between fungi and plants, in which the plant's roots are closely associated with fungal hyphae and other structures. The plant donates to the fungus sugars and other carbohydrates that it manufactures from photosynthesis, while the fungus donates water and mineral nutrients that the hyphal network is able to find much more efficiently than the plant roots alone can, particularly <a title="Phosphorus" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a>. The fungi also protect against diseases and pathogens and provide other benefits to the plant. Recently, plants have been found to use mycorrhizas to deliver carbohydrates and other nutrients to other plants in the same community and in some cases can make plant species that would normally exclude each other able to coexist in the same plant community. Such mycorrhizal communities are called &quot;common mycorrhizal networks&quot;. Over 90% of the plant species on Earth are dependent on mycorrhizae of one type or another in order to survive, and it is hypothesized that the presence of terrestrial fungi may have been necessary in order for the first plants to colonize land. Research in 2005 showed that mycorrhizal fungi facilitate significant nitrogen transfer to their plant hosts.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-7" class="reference"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_note-7" title="">[9]</a></sup></p><p><a title="Lichens" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lichens" title="Lichens">Lichens</a> are formed by a symbiotic relationship between <a title="Algae" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae>algae</a> or <a title="Cyanobacteria" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a> (referred to in lichens as &quot;photobionts&quot;) and fungi (mostly ascomycetes of various kinds and a few basidiomycetes), in which individual photobiont cells are embedded in a complex of fungal tissue. As in <a title="Mycorrhizas" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycorrhizas" title="Mycorrhizas">mycorrhizas</a>, the photobiont provides sugars and other carbohydrates while the fungus provides minerals and water. The functions of both symbiotic organisms are so closely intertwined that they function almost as a single organism.</p><p>Certain insects also engage in mutualistic relationships with various types of fungi. Several groups of ants cultivate various fungi in the <a title="Agaricales" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agaricales" title="Agaricales">Agaricales</a> as their primary food source, while <a title="Ambrosia beetles" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrosia_beetles" title="Ambrosia beetles">ambrosia beetles</a> cultivate various kinds of fungi in the bark of trees that they infest.<sup idclass="_ref-8reference" classid="reference_ref-8"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_note-8" title="">[10]</a></sup> Termites on the African Savannah are also known to cultivate fungi.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-9" class="reference"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_note-9" title="">[11]</a></sup></p><p>Some fungi are parasites on plants, animals (including <a title="Humans" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humans" title="Humans">humans</a>), and even other fungi. Pathogenic fungi are responsible for numerous <a title="Disease" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">diseases>diseases</a>, such as <a title="Athlete’s foot" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athlete%E2%80%99s_foot" title="Athlete’s foot">athlete&rsquo;s foot</a> and <a title="Ringworm" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ringworm" title="Ringworm">ringworm>ringworm</a> in humans and <a title="Dutch elm disease" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_elm_disease" title="Dutch elm disease">Dutch elm disease</a> in plants. Some fungi are <a title="Predators" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predators" title="Predators">>predators</a> of <a title="Nematodes" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nematodes" title="Nematodes">nematodes</a>, which they capture using an array of devices such as constricting rings or adhesive nets.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-10" class><a title="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_note-10" title="">[12]</a></sup></p><p><a nameid="Human_uses_of_fungi" idname="Human_uses_of_fungi"></a></p>

<div class="thumbinner" style="widthWIDTH: 202px;"><a class="internal" title="Sacharomyces cerevisiae cells in DIC microscopy." href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg" class="internal" title="Sacharomyces cerevisiae cells in DIC microscopy."><img widthclass="200thumbimage" height="200" alt="Sacharomyces cerevisiae cells in DIC microscopy." width="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg" class="thumbimage" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg/200px-S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg" /></a>

<div class="magnify" style="floatFLOAT: right;"><a class="internal" title="Enlarge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg" class><img height="internal11" titlealt="Enlarge"><img width="15" height="11" src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" /></a></div>

<p>The study of the historical uses and sociological impact of fungi is known as <a title="Ethnomycology" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnomycology" title="Ethnomycology">ethnomycology</a>.</p><p>Fungi have a long history of use by humans. Many types of <a title="Mushroom" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushroom" title="Mushroom">mushrooms</a> and other fungi are eaten, including <a title="Agaricus bisporus" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agaricus_bisporus" title="Agaricus bisporus">button mushrooms</a>, <a title="Shiitake mushroom" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiitake_mushroom" title="Shiitake mushroom">shiitake mushrooms</a>, and <a title="Oyster mushroom" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oyster_mushroom" title="Oyster mushroom">oyster mushrooms</a>.</p><p>Many <a title="Species" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> of mushrooms are <a title="Poison" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poison" title="Poison">poisonous</a> and are responsible for numerous cases of <a title="Sickness" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sickness" title="Sickness">sickness</a> and <a title="Death" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death" title="Death">death</a> every year. In the <a title="US" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US" title="US">US</a> the most common cause of deadly mushroom poisoning is the <a title="Amanita phalloides" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanita_phalloides" title="Amanita phalloides">Amanita phalloides</a> or death cap mushroom.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-11" class><a title="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_note-11" title="">[13]</a></sup></p><p>A type of single-celled <a title="Yeast" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast">yeast</a> fungus called <a title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saccharomyces_cerevisiae" title="Saccharomyces cerevisiae">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</a> yeast is used in baking <a title="Bread" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bread" title="Bread">bread</a>.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-12" class><a title="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_note-12" title="">[14]</a></sup> Yeast is also used to create <a title="Alcoholic beverage" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcoholic_beverage" title="Alcoholic beverage">alcoholic beverages</a> through <a title="Fermentation" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermentation" title="Fermentation">fermentation</a>. Mycelial fungus is used to make <a title="Shoyu" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoyu" title="Shoyu">Shoyu</a> (<a title="Soy sauce" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soy_sauce" title="Soy sauce">soy sauce</a>) and <a title="Tempeh" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tempeh" title="Tempeh">tempeh</a>. Fungi are also used to produce industrial chemicals like <a title="Lactic acid" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactic_acid" title="Lactic acid">lactic acid</a>, <a title="Antibiotics" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotics" title="Antibiotics">antibiotics</a> and even to make stonewashed <a title="Jeans" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeans" title="Jeans">jeans</a>. Some types of fungi are ingested for their <a title="Psychedelic drug" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychedelic_drug" title="Psychedelic drug">psychedelic</a> properties, both <a title="Recreational drug" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recreational_drug" title="Recreational drug">recreationally</a> and religiously (see main article, <em><a title="Psilocybin mushrooms" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psilocybin_mushrooms" title="Psilocybin mushrooms">Psilocybin mushrooms</a></em>).</p><p><a nameid="Edible_and_poisonous_fungi" idname="Edible_and_poisonous_fungi"></a></p>

<div class="thumbinner" style="widthWIDTH: 202px;"><a class="internal" title="Black Périgord Truffle (Tuber melanosporum), cut in half." href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Truffe_coup%C3%A9e.jpg" class="internal" title="Black Périgord Truffle (Tuber melanosporum), cut in half."><img widthclass="200thumbimage" height="150" alt="Black Périgord Truffle (Tuber melanosporum), cut in half." width="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Truffe_coup%C3%A9e.jpg" class="thumbimage" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Truffe_coup%C3%A9e.jpg/200px-Truffe_coup%C3%A9e.jpg" /></a>

<div class="magnify" style="floatFLOAT: right;"><a class="internal" title="Enlarge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Truffe_coup%C3%A9e.jpg" class><img height="internal11" titlealt="Enlarge"><img width="15" height="11" src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" /></a></div>Black P&eacute;rigord Truffle (<em><a title="Tuber melanosporum" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuber_melanosporum" title="Tuber melanosporum">Tuber melanosporum</a></em>), cut in half.</div>

<div class="thumbinner" style="widthWIDTH: 202px;"><a class="internal" title="Stilton cheese veined with Penicillium roqueforti." href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Blue_Stilton_Quarter_Front.jpg" class="internal" title="Stilton cheese veined with Penicillium roqueforti."><img widthclass="200thumbimage" height="155" alt="Stilton cheese veined with Penicillium roqueforti." width="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Blue_Stilton_Quarter_Front.jpg" class="thumbimage" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Blue_Stilton_Quarter_Front.jpg/200px-Blue_Stilton_Quarter_Front.jpg" /></a>

<div class="magnify" style="floatFLOAT: right;"><a class="internal" title="Enlarge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Blue_Stilton_Quarter_Front.jpg" class><img height="internal11" titlealt="Enlarge"><img width="15" height="11" src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" /></a></div><a title="Stilton cheese" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stilton_cheese" title="Stilton cheese">Stilton cheese</a> veined with <em><a title="Penicillium roqueforti" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillium_roqueforti" title="Penicillium roqueforti">Penicillium roqueforti</a></em>.</div>

<div class="thumbinner" style="widthWIDTH: 202px;"><a class="internal" title="&quot;Death cap&quot;, Amanita phalloides." href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Amanita_phalloides_1.JPG" class="internal" title="&quot;Death cap&quot;, Amanita phalloides."><img widthclass="200thumbimage" height="267" alt="&quot;Death cap&quot;, Amanita phalloides." width="200" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Amanita_phalloides_1.JPG" class="thumbimage" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Amanita_phalloides_1.JPG/200px-Amanita_phalloides_1.JPG" /></a>

<div class="magnify" style="floatFLOAT: right;"><a class="internal" title="Enlarge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:Amanita_phalloides_1.JPG" class><img height="internal11" titlealt="Enlarge"><img width="15" height="11" src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" /></a></div>&quot;Death cap&quot;, <em><a title="Amanita phalloides" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanita_phalloides" title="Amanita phalloides">Amanita phalloides</a></em>.</div>

<p>Some of the most well-known types of fungi are the <a title="Edible mushroom" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edible_mushroom" title="Edible mushroom">edible</a> and <a title="Mushroom poisoning" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushroom_poisoning" title="Mushroom poisoning">poisonous mushrooms</a>. Many species are commercially raised, but others must be harvested from the wild. Button mushrooms (<em><a hreftitle="httpAgaricus bisporus" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agaricus_bisporus" title="Agaricus bisporus">Agaricus bisporus</a></em>) are the most commonly eaten species, used in salads, soups, and many other dishes. <a title="Agaricus bisporus" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agaricus_bisporus" title="Agaricus bisporus">Portobello mushrooms</a> are the same species, but are allowed to grow to a much larger size. Other commercially-grown mushrooms that have gained in popularity in the West and are often available fresh in grocery stores include <a title="Straw mushroom" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straw_mushroom" title="Straw mushroom">straw mushrooms</a> (<em>Volvariella volvacea</em>), <a title="Oyster mushroom" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oyster_mushroom" title="Oyster mushroom">oyster mushrooms</a> (<em>Pleurotus ostreatus</em>), <a title="Shiitake" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiitake" title="Shiitake">shiitakes</a> (<em>Lentinula edodes</em>), and <a title="Enokitake" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enokitake" title="Enokitake">enokitake</a> (<em>Flammulina</em> spp.).</p><p>There are many more mushroom species that are <a title="Mushroom hunting" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushroom_hunting" title="Mushroom hunting">harvested from the wild</a> for personal consumption or commercial sale. <a title="Lactarius deliciosus" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lactarius_deliciosus" title="Lactarius deliciosus">>Milk mushrooms</a>, <a title="Morel" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morel" title="Morel">morels</a>, <a title="Chanterelle" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chanterelle" title="Chanterelle">chanterelles</a>, <a hreftitle="Tuber (genus)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuber_%28genus%29" title="Tuber (genus)">truffles</a>, <a title="Craterellus" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craterellus" title="Craterellus">black trumpets</a>, and <a hreftitle="httpPorcini" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porcini" title="Porcini">porcini</a> mushrooms (also known as king boletes) all command a high price on the market. They are often used in gourmet dishes.</p><p>It is also a common practice to permit the growth of specific species of <a title="Mold" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mold" title="Mold">mold</a> in certain types of cheeses that give them their unique flavor. This mold is non-toxic and is safe for human consumption. This accounts for the <a title="Blue cheese" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_cheese" title="Blue cheese">blue>blue</a> colour in cheeses such as <a title="Stilton cheese" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stilton_cheese" title="Stilton cheese">Stilton</a> or <a title="Roquefort" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roquefort" title="Roquefort">Roquefort</a> which is created using <a title="Penicillium roqueforti" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penicillium_roqueforti" title="Penicillium roqueforti">Penicillium roqueforti</a> spores.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-13" class><a title="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_note-13" title="">[>[15]</a></sup></p><p>Hundreds of mushroom species are toxic to humans, causing anything from upset stomachs to <a title="Hallucination" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hallucination" title="Hallucination">hallucinations</a> to death. Some of the most deadly belong to the genus <em><a title="Amanita" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanita" title="Amanita">Amanita</a></em>, including <em><a hreftitle="httpAmanita virosa" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanita_virosa" title="Amanita virosa">A. virosa</a></em> (the &quot;destroying angel&quot;) and <em><a title="Death cap" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death_cap" title="Death cap">A. phalloides</a></em> (the &quot;death cap&quot;). Stomach cramps, vomiting, and diarrhea usually occur within 6-24 hours after ingestion of these mushrooms, followed by a brief period of remission (usually 1-2 days). Patients often fail to present themselves for treatment at this time, assuming that they have recovered. However, within 2-4 weeks <a title="Liver" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a> and <a title="Kidney" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidney" title="Kidney">kidney</a> failure leads to death if untreated. There is no antidote for the toxins in these mushrooms, but <a title="Kidney dialysis" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidney_dialysis" title="Kidney dialysis">kidney dialysis</a> and administration of <a hreftitle="Corticosteroids" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corticosteroids" title="Corticosteroids">corticosteroids</a> may help. In severe cases, a liver transplant may be necessary (Kaminstein 2002). It is difficult to identify a &quot;safe&quot; mushroom without proper training and knowledge, thus it is often advised to assume that a mushroom in the wild is poisonous and leave it alone.</p><p><a title="Amanita muscaria" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amanita_muscaria" title="Amanita muscaria">Fly agaric</a> mushrooms (<em>A. muscaria</em>) are also responsible for a large number of poisonings, but these cases rarely result in death. The most common symptoms are nausea and vomiting, drowsiness, and hallucinations. In fact, this species is used ritually and <a title="Recreational drug use" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recreational_drug_use" title="Recreational drug use">recreationally</a> for its <a title="Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychedelics%2C_dissociatives_and_deliriants" title="Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants">hallucinogenic</a> properties. Historically Fly agaric was used by <a hreftitle="httpCelt" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celt" title="Celt">Celtic</a> <a title="Druids" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Druids" title="Druids">Druids</a> in Northern Europe and the <a title="Koryaks" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koryaks" title="Koryaks">Koryak >Koryak people</a> of north-eastern <a title="Siberia" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberia" title="Siberia">Siberia</a> for religious or shamanic purposes.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-14" class><a title="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_note-14" title="">[16]</a></sup></p><p><a nameid="Fungi_in_the_biological_control_of_pests" idname="Fungi_in_the_biological_control_of_pests"></a></p>

<p>Many fungi compete with other organisms, or directly infect them. Some of these fungi are considered beneficial because they can restrict, and sometimes eliminate, the populations of noxious organisms like pest insects, <a title="Mites" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mites" title="Mites">mites</a>, <a title="Weed" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weed" title="Weed">weeds</a>, <a title="Nematodes" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nematodes" title="Nematodes">nematodes</a> and other fungi, such as those that kill plants.<sup class="reference" id="_ref-15" class><a title="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_note-15" title="">[17]</a></sup> There is much interest on the manipulation of these beneficial fungi for the <a title="Biological control" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_control" title="Biological control">biological control</a> of pests. Some of these fungi can be used as <a title="Biopesticides" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopesticides" title="Biopesticides">biopesticides</a>, like the ones that kill insects (<a title="Entomopathogenic fungi" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entomopathogenic_fungi" title="Entomopathogenic fungi">entomopathogenic fungi</a>).<sup class="reference" id="_ref-16" class><a title="reference"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_note-16" title="">[18]</a></sup> Specific examples of fungi that have been developed as bioinsecticides are <em><a title="Beauveria bassiana" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beauveria_bassiana" title="Beauveria bassiana">Beauveria bassiana</a></em>, <em><a title="Metarhizium anisopliae" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metarhizium_anisopliae" title="Metarhizium anisopliae">Metarhizium anisopliae</a></em>, <a class="new" title="Hirsutella" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hirsutella&amp;action=edit" class="new" title="Hirsutella">Hirsutella</a>, <em><a class="new" title="Paecilomyces fumosoroseus" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paecilomyces_fumosoroseus&amp;action=edit" class="new" title="Paecilomyces fumosoroseus">Paecilomyces fumosoroseus</a></em>, and <em><a title="Verticillium lecanii" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verticillium_lecanii" title="Verticillium lecanii">Verticillium lecanii</a></em>.</p><p><a nameid="See_also" idname="See_also"></a></p>

<li><a title="Carnivorous fungus" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnivorous_fungus" title="Carnivorous fungus">Carnivorous fungus</a></li> <li><a title="Wood-decay fungus" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood-decay_fungus" title="Wood-decay fungus">Wood-decay fungus</a></li> <li><a title="MycoBank" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MycoBank" title="MycoBank">MycoBank</a></li> <li><a title="List of fungal orders" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_fungal_orders" title="List of fungal orders">List of fungal orders</a></li> <li><a title="Fusicoccin" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusicoccin" title="Fusicoccin">Fusicoccin</a></li>

<p><a nameid="Notes" idname="Notes"></a></p>

<li id="_note-0"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_ref-0" title="">^</a></strong> Volk, Tom. <a hrefclass="external text" title="http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/faq.html" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/faq.html" rel="nofollow">Tom Volk's Fungi FAQ</a>. Retrieved on <a title="2006" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006" title="2006">2006</a>-<a hreftitle="September 21" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_21" title="September 21">09-21</a>., University of Wisconsin, Department of Botany, &quot;Even more important are the mushrooms that are associated with trees as mycorrhizae. Without this mutualistic association most trees would not survive. Killing these fungi would effectively kill your trees.&quot;</li> <li id="_note-1"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_ref-1" title="">^</a></strong> Wong, George. <a hrefclass="external text" title="http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/wong/BOT135/Lect26.htm" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/wong/BOT135/Lect26.htm" rel="nofollow">Symbiosis: Mycorrhizae and Lichens</a>. Retrieved on <a hreftitle="2006" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006" title="2006">2006</a>-<a title="September 21" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/September_21" title="September 21">09-21</a>., University of Hawaii at Manoa, Botany Department, &quot;[Mycorrhizae occur] in practically all plants with the exception of the Brassicaceae; The Crucifer Family; Chenopodiaceae, The Goosefoot Family; Cyperaceae; The <a title="Cyperaceae" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyperaceae" title="Cyperaceae">Sedge Family</a> and in <a title="Aquatic plant" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquatic_plant" title="Aquatic plant">aquatic >aquatic plants</a>. All other families form mycorrhizae. It is believed that for many plants that usually form mycorrhizae, they would be unable to survive in their natural habitat without this symbiotic relationship.&quot;</li> <li id="_note-2"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_ref-2" title="">^</a></strong> Meredith Blackwell; Rytas Vilgalys, and John W. Taylor (<a title="2005" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005" title="2005">2005</a>-<a title="February 14" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_14" title="February 14">02-14</a>). <a hrefclass="httpexternal text" title="http://tolweb.org/Fungi" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://tolweb.org/Fungi" rel="nofollow">Eumycota: mushrooms, sac fungi, yeast, molds, rusts, smuts, etc.</a> <span style="fontFONT-sizeWEIGHT: bold; FONT-SIZE: 0.95em; font-weight: bold; colorCOLOR: rgb(85, 85, 85); positionPOSITION: relative;">(english)</span>. Retrieved on <a title="2007" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007" title="2007">2007</a>-<a hreftitle="httpApril 6" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_6" title="April 6">04-06</a>.</li> <li id="_note-eshet"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_ref-eshet_0" title="">^</a></strong> Eshet, Y. <em>et al.</em> (1995) Fungal event and palynological record of ecological crisis and recovery across the Permian-Triassic boundary. <em>Geology</em>, 23, 967-970.</li> <li id="_note-3"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_ref-3" title="">^</a></strong> See <a hrefclass="external text" title="http://www.palaeos.com/Fungi/default.htm" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://www.palaeos.com/Fungi/default.htm" rel="nofollow">Palaeos: Fungi</a> for an introduction to fungal taxonomy, including recent controversies.</li> <li id="_note-4"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_ref-4" title="">^</a></strong> <a hrefclass="external text" title="http://www.clarku.edu/faculty/dhibbett/AFTOL/documents/AFTOL%20class%20mss%2023,%2024/AFTOL%20CLASS%20MS%20resub.pdf" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://www.clarku.edu/faculty/dhibbett/AFTOL/documents/AFTOL%20class%20mss%2023,%2024/AFTOL%20CLASS%20MS%20resub.pdf" rel="nofollow">&ldquo;A Higher-Level Phylogenetic Classification of the Fungi&rdquo; by David S. Hibbett,</a> (.pdf file) Retrieved on 8 March 2007</li> <li id="_note-5"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_ref-5" title="">>^</a></strong> <a hrefclass="external text" title="http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/23/1/93" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/23/1/93" rel="nofollow">The Protistan Origins of Animals and Fungi</a> Emma T. Steenkamp, Jane Wright and Sandra L. Baldauf. Molecular Biology and Evolution 2006 23(1):93-106; doi:10.1093/molbev/msj011. Retrieved <a title="2007" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007" title="2007">2007</a>-<a title="April 6" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_6" title="April 6">>04-06</a>.</li> <li id="_note-6"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_ref-6" title="">^</a></strong> <a hrefclass="external text" title="http://www.microbiologybytes.com/introduction/myc2.html" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://www.microbiologybytes.com/introduction/myc2.html" rel="nofollow">Reproduction of fungi</a> MicrobiologyBytes, <a title="2007" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007" title="2007">>2007</a>-<a title="January 18" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/January_18" title="January 18">01-18</a>. Retrieved <a title="2007" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007" title="2007">2007</a>-<a title="April 6" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_6" title="April 6">04-06</a>.</li> <li id="_note-7"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_ref-7" title="">^</a></strong> <a hrefclass="external text" title="http://southwestfarmpress.com/news/6-10-05-nitrogen-transfer-beneficial-fungi/" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://southwestfarmpress.com/news/6-10-05-nitrogen-transfer-beneficial-fungi/" rel="nofollow">Knowledge of nitrogen transfer between plants and beneficial fungi expands</a> southwestfarmpress.com. <a title="2005" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005" title="2005">2005</a>-<a hreftitle="httpJune 10" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/June_10" title="June 10">06-10</a> Retrieved <a title="2007" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007" title="2007">2007</a>-<a title="April 6" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_6" title="April 6">04-06</a>.</li> <li id="_note-8"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_ref-8" title="">^>^</a></strong> <a hrefclass="external text" title="http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/wong/BOT135/Lect24.htm" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/wong/BOT135/Lect24.htm" rel="nofollow">Fungi and Insect Symbiosis</a> www.botany.hawaii.edu. Retrieved <a title="2007" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007" title="2007">2007</a>-<a title="April 6" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_6" title="April 6">04-06</a>.</li> <li id="_note-9"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_ref-9" title="">^</a></strong> Pascal Jouquet, Virginie Tavernier, Luc Abbadie and Michel Lepage. <em>Nests of subterranean fungus-growing termites (Isoptera,</em> Macrotermitinae) as nutrient patches for grasses in savannah ecosystems<em>. African Journal of Ecology. 2005. Vol 43, 191&ndash;196</em></li> <li id="_note-10"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_ref-10" title="">^</a></strong> <a hrefclass="external text" title="http://www.uoguelph.ca/%7Egbarron~gbarron/MISC2003/illustra.htm" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://www.uoguelph.ca/~gbarron%7Egbarron/MISC2003/illustra.htm" rel="nofollow">ILLUSTRATIONS for Predatory Fungi, wood Decay and the Carbon Cycle</a> www.uoguelph.ca. Retrieved <a title="2007" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007" title="2007">2007</a>-<a title="April 6" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_6" title="April 6">04-06</a>.</li> <li id="_note-11"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_ref-11" title="">^</a></strong> <a hrefclass="external text" title="http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=7251327" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=7251327" rel="nofollow">On the Trail of the Death Cap Mushroom</a> Richard Harris, www.npr.org, <a title="2007" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007" title="2007">2007</a>-<a title="February 8" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_8" title="February 8">02-08</a>. Retrieved <a title="2007" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007" title="2007">2007</a>-<a title="April 6" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_6" title="April 6">04-06</a>.</li> <li id="_note-12"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_ref-12" title="">^</a></strong> <a hrefclass="external text" title="http://www.dailylush.com/archives/yeast.html" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://www.dailylush.com/archives/yeast.html" rel="nofollow">It eats sugar and poops alcohol. What&rsquo;s not to like?</a> Max Sparber, Daily Lush, <a title="2005" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005" title="2005">2005</a>-<a title="August 6" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_6" title="August 6">08-06</a>. Retrieved <a title="2007" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007" title="2007">2007</a>-<a title="April 6" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_6" title="April 6">04-06</a>.</li> <li id="_note-13"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_ref-13" title="">^</a></strong> <a hrefclass="external text" title="http://whatscookingamerica.net/Q-A/CheeseMold.htm" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://whatscookingamerica.net/Q-A/CheeseMold.htm" rel="nofollow">Questions &amp; Answers - Mold on Cheese</a> whatscookingamerica.net. Retrieved <a hreftitle="2007" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007" title="2007">2007</a>-<a title="April 6" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_6" title="April 6">04-06</a>.</li> <li id="_note-14"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_ref-14" title="">^</a></strong> <a hrefclass="external text" title="http://www.treesforlife.org.uk/forest/mythfolk/flyagaric.html" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://www.treesforlife.org.uk/forest/mythfolk/flyagaric.html" rel="nofollow">Mythology and Folklore of Fly Agaric</a> Paul Kendall, Trees for Life. Retrieved <a title="2007" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007" title="2007">2007</a>-<a title="April 6" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_6" title="April 6">04-06</a>.</li> <li id="_note-15"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_ref-15" title="">^</a></strong> <a hrefclass="external text" title="http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/jul98/fung0798.htm" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/AR/archive/jul98/fung0798.htm" rel="nofollow">Setting the Stage To Screen Biocontrol Fungi</a> Hank Becker, July 1998. Retrieved <a title="2007" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007" title="2007">2007</a>-<a title="April 6" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_6" title="April 6">04-06</a>.</li> <li id="_note-16"><strong><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungi#_ref-16" title="">^</a></strong> <a hrefclass="external text" title="http://www.uvminnovations.com/graphics/microfactory.pdf" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://www.uvminnovations.com/graphics/microfactory.pdf" rel="nofollow">WHEY-BASED FUNGAL MICROFACTORY TECHNOLOGY FOR ENHANCED BIOLOGICAL PEST MANAGEMENT USING FUNGI</a> Todd. S. Keiller, Technology Transfer, University of Vermont. Retrieved <a title="2007" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007" title="2007">2007</a>-<a title="April 6" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_6" title="April 6">04-06</a>.</li>

<p><a nameid="References" idname="References"></a></p>

<li>Deacon JW. (2005). Fungal Biology (4th ed). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers. <a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&amp;isbn=1405130660" class="internal">ISBN 1-4051-3066-0</a>.</li> <li>Kaminstein D. (2002). <a hrefclass="external text" title="http://www.healthatoz.com/healthatoz/Atoz/ency/mushroom_poisoning.jsp" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://www.healthatoz.com/healthatoz/Atoz/ency/mushroom_poisoning.jsp" rel="nofollow">Mushroom poisoning</a>.</li>

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<li><a hrefclass="external text" title="http://mycology.cornell.edu/" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://mycology.cornell.edu/" rel="nofollow">The WWW Virtual Library: Mycology</a></li>

<li><a hrefclass="external text" title="http://www.mykoweb.com/links.html" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://www.mykoweb.com/links.html" rel="nofollow">MykoWeb: Mycological Links</a></li> <li><a hrefclass="external text" title="http://www.mushroomexpert.com/" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://www.mushroomexpert.com/" rel="nofollow">MushroomExpert.com</a></li> <li><a hrefclass="external text" title="http://www.mykoweb.com/" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://www.mykoweb.com/" rel="nofollow">MykoWeb</a></li> <li><a hrefclass="external text" title="http://tomvolkfungi.net/" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://tomvolkfungi.net/" rel="nofollow">Tom Volk's Fungi</a></li> <li><a hrefclass="external text" title="http://www.ilmyco.gen.chicago.il.us/Terms/TermsFrame.html" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://www.ilmyco.gen.chicago.il.us/Terms/TermsFrame.html" rel="nofollow">Illinois Mycological Association Mycological Glossary</a></li> <li><a hrefclass="external text" title="http://tolweb.org/fungi" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://tolweb.org/fungi" rel="nofollow">Tree of Life web project: Fungi</a></li> <li><a hrefclass="external text" title="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/fungi/fungi.html" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/fungi/fungi.html" rel="nofollow">&quot;Introduction to the Fungi&quot;</a>, <em><a title="University of California" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California" title="University of California">University of California</a> Museum of Paleontology</em>.</li> <li><a hrefclass="external text" title="http://bugs.bio.usyd.edu.au/Mycology/contents.shtml" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://bugs.bio.usyd.edu.au/Mycology/contents.shtml" rel="nofollow"><em>Fungal Biology</em></a>, <em><a title="University of Sydney" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Sydney" title="University of Sydney">University of Sydney</a>, School of Biological Sciences</em>, June, 2004. &ndash; Online textbook</li> <li><a hrefclass="external text" title="http://www.mycolog.com/fifthtoc.html" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://www.mycolog.com/fifthtoc.html" rel="nofollow"><em>The Fifth Kingdom</em></a> &ndash; Online textbook</li> <li><a hrefclass="external text" title="http://www.anbg.gov.au/fungi/" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://www.anbg.gov.au/fungi/" rel="nofollow">Australian National Botanic Gardens Fungi Web Site</a> &ndash; Online textbook</li> <li><a hrefclass="external text" title="http://www.pnwfungi.org/" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://www.pnwfungi.org/" rel="nofollow">Pacific Northwest Fungi, Online Journal</a></li> <li><a hrefclass="external text" title="http://www.namyco.org/" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://www.namyco.org/" rel="nofollow">North American Mycological Association</a></li> <li><a hrefclass="external text" title="http://www.msafungi.org/" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://www.msafungi.org/" rel="nofollow">Mycological Society of America</a></li> <li><a hrefclass="external text" title="http://www.britmycolsoc.org.uk/" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://www.britmycolsoc.org.uk/" rel="nofollow">British Mycological Society</a></li> <li><a hrefclass="external text" title="http://sydneyfungalstudies.org.au/intro.html" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://sydneyfungalstudies.org.au/intro.html" rel="nofollow">Sydney Fungal Studies Group</a></li> <li><a hrefclass="external text" title="http://home.arcor.de/stefan.wic/diplomarbeit.pdf#search=%22%22stefan%20wic%22%22/" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://home.arcor.de/stefan.wic/diplomarbeit.pdf#search=%22%22stefan%20wic%22%22/" rel="nofollow">fungi as mycobionts in lichens</a></li> <li><a hrefclass="external text" title="http://www.speciesfungorum.org/" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://www.speciesfungorum.org/" rel="nofollow">CABI Bioscience Databases</a> - Includes <em>Index Fungorum</em> genus and species names and top-down hierarchy</li> <li><a hrefclass="external text" title="http://mushroomobserver.org/" classrel="external textnofollow" titlehref="http://mushroomobserver.org" rel="nofollow/">Mushroom Observer</a> - A site for recording observations of mushrooms and getting help identifying unknown collections</li>