View source for Science

:''For the scientific journal named ''Science'', see [[Science (journal)]].''<br />:''The scope of this article is limited to empirical sciences. For mathematical sciences, see [[Mathematics]].''<br /><br />'''Science''' (from [[Latin]] ''scientia'' - knowledge) refers to a system of acquiring knowledge - based on [[empiricism]], experimentation, and methodological [[naturalism]] - aimed at finding out the [[truth]]. The basic unit of knowledge is the [[theory]], which is a [[hypothesis]] that is predictive. The term ''science'' also refers to the organized body of [[knowledge]] humans have gained by such [[research]].<br /><br />Most [[scientist]]s feel that scientific investigation must adhere to the [[scientific method]], a process for evaluating [[empirical]] [[knowledge]] under the working assumption of [[Naturalism (philosophy)|methodological materialism]], which explains [[observation|observable]] events in [[nature]] by natural causes without assuming the existence or non-existence of the [[supernatural]].&nbsp; Less formally, the word ''science'' often describes any systematic field of study or the knowledge gained from it. Particular specialized studies that make use of empirical methods are often referred to as ''sciences'' as well. This article concentrates on the more specific definition.<br /><br />Science as defined above is sometimes termed [[pure science]] to differentiate it from [[applied science]], the application of research to human needs.<br /><br />Fields of science may also be classified along two major lines:<br />* [[Experiment]], the search for first-hand information, versus [[theory]], the development of [[model (abstract)|models]] to explain what is observed<br />* [[Natural science]], the study of the natural phenomena, versus [[social sciences|social science]], the study of [[human behaviour]] and [[society]]<br /><br />[[Mathematics]] is often referred to as a science, but the fruits of mathematical sciences, known as [[theorem]]s, are obtained by [[logic]]al derivations, which presume [[axiom]]atic systems rather than a combination of observation and reasoning. Many mathematical methods have fundamental utility in the empirical sciences, of which the fruits are [[hypothesis|hypotheses]] and [[theory|theories]].<br /><br />[[Image:Bohratommodel.png|thumb|307px|The [[Bohr model]] of the [[atom]], like many ideas in the [[history of science]], was at first prompted by and later partially disproved by [[experiment|experimentation]].]]<br /><br />== What is science? ==<br /><br />There are many different conceptions of the word &quot;science&quot;.<br /><br />According to [[empiricism]], scientific theories are objective, empirically testable, and predictive &amp;mdash; they predict empirical results that can be checked and [[Falsifiability|possibly contradicted]]. <br /><br />In contrast, [[scientific realism]] defines science in terms of [[ontology]]: science attempts to identify phenomena and entities in the environment, their causal powers, the mechanisms through which they exercise those powers, and the sources of those powers in terms of the thing's structure or internal nature. <br /><br />Even in the empiricist tradition, we must be careful to understand that &quot;prediction&quot; refers to the outcome of an experiment or study, rather than to literally predicting the future. For example, to say, &quot;a paleontologist may make predictions about finding a certain type of dinosaur&quot; is consistent with the empiricist's use of prediction. On the other hand, sciences like geology or meteorology need not be able to make accurate predictions about earthquakes or the weather to qualify as sciences. Empiricist philosopher, [[Karl Popper]] also argued that certain [[verification]] is impossible and that scientific hypotheses can only be falsified ([[falsification]]). <br /><br />[[Positivism]], a form of empiricism, advocates using science, as defined by empiricism, to govern human affairs. Because of their close affiliation, the terms &quot;positivism&quot; and &quot;empiricism&quot; are often used interchangeably. Both have been subjected to criticisms:<br /><br />*[[W. V. Quine]] demonstrated the impossibility of a theory-independent observation language, so the very notion of testing theories with [[facts]] is problematic. <br />*Observations are always '''theory-laden'''. [[Thomas Kuhn]] argued that science always involves &quot;[[paradigms]],&quot; sets of (often unstated) assumptions, rules, practices, etc. and that transitions from one paradigm to another generally does not involve verification or falsification of scientific theories. Moreover, he argued that science has not proceeded [[history|historically]] as the steady accumulation of facts, as the empiricist model implies. <br /><br />For more information, see [[Theories and sociology of the history of science]].<br /><br />==Scientific method==<br />{{main|Scientific method}}<br /><br />The terms [[wiktionary:model|model]], [[hypothesis]], [[theory]], and [[physical law|law]] have different meanings in science and colloquial speech. Scientists use ''model'' to refer to a description of something, specifically one which can be used to make predictions that can be tested by [[experiment]] or [[observation]]. A ''hypothesis'' is a contention that has been neither well supported nor ruled out by experiment yet. A ''physical law'' or ''law of nature'' is a scientific generalization based on empirical observations.<br /><br />The scientific method provides an objective process to find solutions to problems in a number of scientific and technological fields. Often [[scientist]]s have a preference for one outcome over another, and it is important that this preference does not [[bias]] their interpretation. The scientific method attempts to minimize the influence of a scientist's bias on the outcome of an [[experiment]].<br /><br />Scientists never claim absolute knowledge. Unlike a [[mathematical proof]], a proven scientific theory is ''always'' open to [[falsifiability|falsification]], if new evidence is presented. Even the most basic and fundamental theories may turn out to be imperfect if new observations are inconsistent with them.<br /><br />[[Isaac Newton|Newton]]'s [[Newtonian mechanics|law of gravitation]] is a famous example of an established law that was later found not to be universal - it does not hold in experiments involving motion at speeds close to the [[speed of light]] or in close proximity of strong [[gravitational field]]s. Outside these conditions, Newton's Laws remain an excellent model of motion and gravity. Since [[general relativity]] accounts for all the same phenomena that Newton's Laws do and more, general relativity is now regarded as a better theory.<br /><br />== Philosophy of science==<br />{{main|Philosophy of science}}<br /><br />The philosophy of science seeks to understand the nature and justification of scientific knowledge, and its ethical implications. It has proven difficult to provide an [[Scientific_method#Philosophical_issues |account of the scientific method]] that can serve to distinguish science from non-science.<br /><br />Science is reasoned analysis of [[sensation]] upon our awareness. As such, the scientific method cannot deduce anything about the realm of [[reality]] that is beyond what is observable by existing or theoretical means. When a manifestation of our reality previously considered [[supernatural]] is understood in the terms of causes and consequences, it acquires a scientific explanation. <br />For example, [[God]] may choose to be hidden from this reality, hence making discussion over God's existence non-scientific.<br /><br />Some of the findings of science can be very [[counter-intuitive]]. [[Atomic theory]], for example, implies that a granite boulder which appears a heavy, hard, solid, grey object is actually a combination of subatomic [[Particle physics|particles]] with none of these properties, moving very rapidly in an area consisting mostly of empty space. Many of humanity's [[folk physics|preconceived notions]] about the workings of the [[universe]] have been challenged by new scientific discoveries. [[Quantum mechanics]], particularly, examines phenomena that seem to defy our most basic postulates about causality and fundamental understanding of the world around us.<br /><br />== Mathematics and the scientific method ==<br />[[Mathematics]] is essential to many sciences. The most important function of mathematics in science is the role it plays in the expression of scientific ''models''. Observing and collecting measurements, as well as hypothesizing and predicting, often require mathematical models and extensive use of mathematics. Mathematical branches most often used in science include [[calculus]] and [[statistics]], although virtually every branch of mathematics has applications, even &quot;pure&quot; areas such as [[number theory]] and [[topology]]. Mathematics is most prevalent in [[physics]], but less so in chemistry, biology, and some social sciences.<br /><br />Some thinkers see mathematicians as scientists, regarding physical experiments as inessential or mathematical proofs as equivalent to experiments. Others do not see mathematics as a science, since it does not require experimental test of its theories and hypotheses. In either case, the fact that mathematics is such a useful tool in describing the universe is a central issue in the [[philosophy of mathematics]].<br />{{see|Eugene Wigner|The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences}} <br /><br />[[Richard Feynman]] said &quot;Mathematics is not real, but it ''feels'' real. Where is this place?&quot;, while <br />[[Bertrand Russell]]'s favourite definition of mathematics was &quot;the subject in which we never know what we are talking about nor whether what we are saying is right.&quot;<br /><br />== Goals of science ==<br />[[Image:Glowing tobacco plant.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The incredible power of science to allow the drastic manipulation of the [[nature|physical world]] stems directly from its ability to elucidate the foundational mechanisms which underlie nature's processes. Here, an image of &quot;artificial&quot; [[bioluminescence]] which has been induced in a tobacco plant by the use of [[genetic engineering]].]]<br /><br />Despite popular impressions of science, it is not the goal of science to answer all questions.&nbsp; The goal of the physical sciences is to answer only those that pertain to reality.&nbsp; Also, science cannot possibly address nonsensical, or untestable questions, so the choice of which questions to answer becomes important. Science does not and can not produce absolute and unquestionable [[truth]]. Rather, physical science often tests [[hypothesis|hypotheses]] about some aspect of the physical world, and when necessary revises or replaces it in light of new observations or [[data]].<br /><br />According to [[empiricism]], science does not make any statements about how nature actually &quot;is&quot;; science can only make conclusions about our ''observations'' of nature. Both scientists and the people who accept science believe, and more importantly, ''act'' as if nature actually &quot;is&quot; as science claims. Still, this is only a problem if we accept the empiricist notion of science.<br /><br />Science is not a source of subjective value judgements, though it can certainly speak to matters of [[ethics]] and public policy by pointing to the likely consequences of actions. What one projects from the currently most reasonable scientific hypothesis onto other realms of interest is not a scientific issue, and the [[scientific method]] offers no assistance for those who wish to do so. Scientific justification (or refutation) for many things is, nevertheless, often claimed. Of course, value judgements are intrinsic to science itself. For example, science values truth and knowledge.<br /><br />The underlying goal or purpose of science to society and individuals is to produce ''useful models of reality''.&nbsp; It has been said that it is virtually impossible to make inferences from human senses which actually describe what &ldquo;is.&rdquo; On the other hand, as stated, science can make ''predictions'' based on ''observations''. These predictions often benefit society or human individuals who make use of them. For example, [[Newtonian physics]], and in more extreme cases [[relativity]] allow us to predict anything from the effect one moving billiard ball will have on another to things like trajectories of space shuttles and satellites. The social sciences allow us to predict (with limited accuracy for now) things like economic turbulence and also to better understand human behavior and to produce useful models of society and to work more empirically with government policies.&nbsp; [[Chemistry]] and [[biology]] together have transformed our ability to use and predict chemical and biological reactions and scenarios. In modern times though, these segregated scientific disciplines (notably the latter two) are more often being used together in conjunction to produce more complete models and tools. <br /><br />In short, science produces ''useful models'' which allow us to make often useful ''predictions''. Science attempts to ''describe'' what is, but avoids trying to ''determine'' what is (which is for practical reasons impossible). Science is a ''useful tool''. . . it is a growing body of understanding that allows us to contend more effectively with our surroundings and to better adapt and evolve as a social whole as well as independently.<br /><br />[[Individualism]] is a tacit assumption underlying most empiricist accounts of science which treat science as if it were purely a matter of a single individual confronting nature, testing and predicting hypotheses. In fact, science is always a '''collective''' activity conducted by a scientific [[community]]. This can be demonstrated many ways, perhaps the most fundamental and trivial of which is that scientific results must be communicated with [[language]].&nbsp; Thus the values of scientific communities permeate the science they produce.<br /><br />== Locations of science ==<br />Science is practiced in [[university|universities]] and other scientific institutes as well as in the field; as such it is a solid vocation in [[academia]], but is also practiced by [[amateur]]s, who typically engage in the [[observation]]al part of science.<br /><br />Workers in corporate [[laboratory|research laboratories]] also practice science, although their results are often deemed [[trade secret]]s and not published in public journals. Corporate and university scientists often cooperate, with the university scientists focusing on basic research and the corporate scientists applying their findings to a specific [[technology]] of interest to the company. Although generally this method of co-operation has benefited both the advancement of science&nbsp; and the corporations, it has also, in some cases lead to ethical problems, when the results arrived at in the course of research have had a negative aspect for the financing corporation. A classical example is the history of health research related to [[smoking]].<br /><br />Individuals involved in the field of science education argue that the process of science is performed by all individuals as they learn about their world.&nbsp; <br /><br />The methods of science are also practiced in many places to achieve specific goals. For example:<br />* Quality control in [[manufacturing]] facilities (for example, a microbiologist in a cheese factory ensures that cultures contain the proper species of bacteria)<br />* Obtaining and processing [[crime scene]] evidence ([[forensics]])<br />* Monitoring compliance with [[environmental law]]s<br />* Performing [[medical test]]s to help physicians evaluate the health of their patients<br />* Investigating the causes of a [[disaster]] (such as a bridge collapse or airline crash)<br /><br />== Science and social concerns==<br /><br />A basic understanding of science and [[technology]] has become indispensible for anyone living in a city or town, because technology - a product of science - has become an important part of peoples' lives. [[Science education]] aims at increasing common knowledge about science and widening social awareness. The process of learning science begins early in life for many people; school students start learning about science as soon as they acquire basic language skills, and science is always an essential part of [[curriculum]]. Science education is also a very vibrant field of study and research. Learning science requires learning its language, which often differs from colloquial language. For example, the terminology of the physical sciences is rich in mathematical jargon, and that of biological studies is rich in [[Latin]] names. The language used to communicate science is rich in words pertaining to [[concepts]], [[phenomena]], and [[process]]es, which are initally alien to children.<br /><br />Due to the growing economic value of technology and industrial research, the economy of any modern country depends on its state of science and technology. The governments of most developed and developing countries therefore designate a significant part of their annual budget to science and technology research and communication and often have a [[science policy]] and there are some large-scale science projects - often termed as [[big science]].<br />The practice of science&nbsp; by scientists has undergone remarkable changes in the past few centuries. Most scientific research is currently funded by government or corporate bodies and many scientists often enjoy social reputation and several privilages. This has led to frauds in reporting results of scientific research [http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1345552.cms],[http://www.aaronsw.com/weblog/001616] often termed as [[scientific misconduct]], in addition instances of [[pathological science]] are also becoming more frequent.<br /><br />== Scientific literature ==<br /><br />Science has become so pervasive in modern societies that it is generally perceived a neccessity to communicate the acheivements, news, and dreams of scientists to a wider populace. This need is fulfilled by an enourmous range of [[scientific literature]]. While [[scientific journal]]s communicate and document the results of research carried out in universities and various other institutions besides new discoveries in various fields of science. [[Science magazine]]s cater to the needs of a wider readership. Besides these, [[science book]]s and magazines on [[science fiction]] ignite the interest of a many more people. Lately, a significant fraction of literature in science is also available on the [[World Wide Web]]; most reputed journals and newsmagazines have their own [[website]]s. Also, a growing number of people are being attracted towards the vocation of [[popular science|science popularization]] and [[science journalism]].<br /><br />== Fields of science ==<br />=== Natural sciences === See also: [[#Social sciences]]<br />{{Natural sciences-footer}}<br />{{col-begin}}<br />{{col-break}}<br />* [[Physics]]<br />** [[Acoustics]]<br />** [[Agrophysics]]<br />** [[Astrodynamics]]<br />** [[Astronomy]]<br />** [[Astrophysics]]<br />** [[Atomic, Molecular, and Optical physics]]<br />** [[Biophysics]]<br />** [[Computational physics]]<br />** [[Condensed matter physics]]<br />** [[Cosmology]]<br />** [[Cryogenics]]<br />** [[dynamics (mechanics)|Dynamics]]<br /><br />{{col-break}}<br />** [[Fluid dynamics]]<br />** [[Materials physics]]<br />** [[Mathematical physics]]<br />** [[Mechanics]]<br />** [[Nuclear physics]]<br />** [[Optics]]<br />** [[Particle physics]] (or High Energy Physics) <br />** [[Plasma physics]]<br />** [[Polymer physics]]<br />** [[Statics]]<br />** [[Solid State]]<br />** [[Vehicle dynamics]]<br />{{col-end}}<br /><br />{{col-begin}}<br />{{col-break}}<br />* [[Chemistry]]<br />** [[Analytical chemistry]]<br />** [[Biochemistry]]<br />** [[Computational chemistry]]<br />** [[Electrochemistry]]<br />** [[Inorganic chemistry]]<br />** [[Materials science]]<br /><br />{{col-break}}<br />** [[Organic chemistry]]<br />** [[Physical chemistry]]<br />** [[Quantum chemistry]]<br />** [[Spectroscopy]]<br />** [[Stereochemistry]]<br />** [[Thermochemistry]]<br />{{col-end}}<br /><br />{{col-begin}}<br />{{col-break}}<br />* [[Earth sciences]]<br />** [[Geodesy]]<br />** [[Geography]]<br />** [[Geology]]<br />** [[Meteorology]]<br /><br />{{col-break}}<br />** [[Oceanography]]<br />** [[Paleontology]]<br />** [[Limnology]]<br />** [[Seismology]]<br />** [[Soil science]]<br />{{col-end}}<br /><br />{{col-begin}}<br />{{col-break}}<br />* [[Biology]]<br />** [[Anatomy]]<br />** [[Astrobiology]]<br />** [[Biochemistry]]<br />** [[Bioinformatics]]<br />** [[Biophysics]]<br />** [[Botany]]<br />** [[Cell biology]]<br />** [[Cladistics]]<br />** [[Cytology]]<br />** [[Developmental biology]]<br />** [[Ecology]]<br />** [[Entomology]]<br />** [[Epidemiology]]<br />** [[Evolution]] (Evolutionary biology)<br />** [[Evolutionary developmental biology]] (&quot;Evo-devo&quot; or Evolution of Development)<br />** [[Freshwater Biology]]<br />** [[Genetics]] ([[Population genetics]], [[Genomics]], [[Proteomics]])<br /><br />{{col-break}}<br />** [[Histology]]<br />** [[Immunology]]<br />** [[Marine biology]]<br />** [[Microbiology]]<br />** [[Molecular Biology]]<br />** [[Morphology (biology)|Morphology]]<br />** [[Neuroscience]]<br />** [[Ontogeny]]<br />** [[Phycology]] (Algology)<br />** [[Phylogeny]]<br />** [[Physical anthropology]]<br />** [[Physiology]]<br />** [[Structural biology]]<br />** [[Taxonomy]]<br />** [[Toxicology]]<br />** [[Virology]]<br />** [[Zoology]]<br />{{col-end}}<br /><br />=== Social sciences === See also: [[#Natural sciences]]<br />{{Social sciences-footer}}<br />{{col-begin}}<br />{{col-break}}<br />* [[Anthropology]]<br />** [[Archaeology]]<br />* [[Economics]]<br />* [[Geography]]<br />* [[Linguistics]]<br />** [[Morphology (linguistics)|Morphology]]<br />** [[Phonetics]]<br />** [[Phonology]]<br />** [[Semantics]]<br />** [[Syntax]]<br />* [[Philosophy]]<br />* [[Political Science]]<br /><br />{{col-break}}<br />* [[Psychology]]<br />** [[Behavior analysis]]<br />** [[Biopsychology]]<br />** [[Cognitive psychology]]<br />** [[Clinical psychology]]<br />** [[Developmental psychology]]<br />** [[Educational psychology]]<br />** [[Experimental psychology]]<br />** [[Forensic psychology]]<br />** [[Health psychology]]<br />** [[Humanistic psychology]]<br />** [[Industrial and organizational psychology]]<br />** [[Neuropsychology]]<br />** [[Personality psychology]]<br />** [[Psychometrics]]<br />** [[Psychology of religion]]<br />** [[Psychophysics]]<br />** [[Sensation and perception psychology]]<br />** [[Social psychology]]<br />* [[Sociology]]<br />{{col-end}}<br /><br />===Holistic, interdisciplinary, and applied sciences===<br />{{col-begin}}<br />{{col-break}}<br />* [[Cognitive sciences]]<br />** [[Cognitive neuroscience]]<br />** [[Cognitive psychology]]<br />** [[Neuropsychology]]<br />** [[Psycholinguistics]]<br />*Computer and information sciences<br />** [[Computational linguistics]]<br />** [[Computer science]]<br />** [[Cybernetics]]<br />** [[Information science]]<br />** [[Library science]]<br />** [[Systemics]]<br />* [[Engineering]]<br />** [[Agricultural engineering]]<br />** [[Agricultural science]]<br />** [[Biomedical engineering]]<br />** [[Civil engineering]]<br />** [[Computer engineering]]<br />** [[Electrical engineering]]<br />** [[Language engineering]]<br />** [[Mechanical engineering]]<br /><br />{{col-break}}<br />* [[Health Science]]<br />** [[Conservation medicine]]<br />** [[Dentistry]]<br />** [[Medicine]]<br />*** [[Anatomy]]<br />*** [[Dermatology]]<br />*** [[Gynecology]]<br />*** [[Immunology]]<br />*** [[Internal medicine]]<br />*** [[Neurology]]<br />*** [[Ophthalmology]]<br />*** [[Pathology]]<br />*** [[Pathophysiology]]<br />*** [[Pediatrics]]<br />*** [[Pharmacology]] <br />*** [[Physiology]]<br />*** [[Psychiatry]]<br />*** [[Radiology]]<br />*** [[Toxicology]]<br />** [[Veterinary medicine]]<br />* [[Military science]]<br />* [[Planetary science]]<br />{{col-end}}<br /><br />===Environmental sciences===<br />{{col-begin}}<br />{{col-break}}<br />*[[Environmental science]]<br />{{col-break}}<br />*[[Environmental chemistry]]<br />{{col-end}}<br /><br />== Etymology ==<br />The word '''science''' comes from the [[Latin]] word, ''scientia'', which means [[knowledge]]; thus the [[:category:Latin phrases|phrase]] ''[[scientia potentia est]]'': ''knowledge is power''.<br /><br />Until [[the Enlightenment]], the word ''science'' (or its Latin cognate) meant any systematic or exact, recorded knowledge. ''Science'' therefore had the same sort of very broad meaning that ''[[philosophy]]'' had at that time. It should be noted that in (at least) [[German language|German]], [[Finnish language|Finnish]], and [[Scandinavian]] languages, the word corresponding &quot;science&quot; (German ''Wissenschaft'') still carries this meaning. Therefore, when arriving in confusion in discussion about science with a lay person from [[European]] continent it is worthwhile to make sure that both parties are using &quot;science&quot; in the meaning of [[English language]]. The continental person might be including also philosophy and humanities into his definition of ''wissenschaft''.<br /><br />There was a distinction between, for example, &quot;natural science&quot; and &quot;moral science,&quot; which later included what we now call philosophy, and this mirrored a distinction between &quot;natural philosophy&quot; and &quot;moral philosophy.&quot; More recently, &quot;science&quot; has come to be restricted to what used to be called &quot;[[natural science]]&quot; or &quot;natural philosophy.&quot; Natural science can be further broken down into [[physical science]] and [[biological science]].&nbsp; [[Social science]] is often included in the field of science as well. <br /><br />Fields of study are often distinguished in terms of [[hard sciences]] and [[soft sciences]] and these terms (at times considered derogatory) are often synonymous with the terms natural and social science (respectively). [[Physics]], [[chemistry]], [[biology]] and [[geology]] are all forms of &quot;hard sciences&quot;.&nbsp; Studies of [[anthropology]], [[history]], [[psychology]], and [[sociology]] are sometimes called &quot;soft sciences.&quot;&nbsp;&nbsp; Even within the fields there is sorting of the fields. Although it might be difficult to say whether geology or biology is &quot;harder&quot;, physics is usually considered the &quot;hardest&quot;. Especially &quot;hard&quot; are the fields of high energy physics and cosmology. In this usage, &quot;hard&quot; means mathematic, or in experimental area, expensive.<br /><br />Proponents of this division use the arguments that the &quot;soft sciences&quot; do not use the [[scientific method]], admit [[anecdotal evidence]], or are not mathematical, all adding up to a &quot;lack of [[rigor]]&quot; in their methods. Opponents of the division in the sciences counter that the &quot;social sciences&quot; often make systematic statistical studies in strictly controlled environments, or that these conditions are not adhered to by the natural sciences either (for example, [[behavioral biology]] relies upon [[fieldwork]] in uncontrolled environments, [[astronomy]] cannot design experiments, only observe limited conditions). Opponents of the division also point out that each of the current &quot;hard sciences&quot; suffered a similar &quot;lack of rigor&quot; in its own infancy.<br /><br />The term &quot;science&quot; is sometimes pressed into service for new and [[interdisciplinarity|interdisciplinary]] fields that make use of scientific methods at least in part, and which in any case aspire to be systematic and careful explorations of their subjects, including [[computer science]], [[library and information science]], and [[environmental science]]. [[Mathematics]] and [[computer science]] reside under &quot;Q&quot; in the [[Library of Congress classification]], along with all else we now call science.<br /><br />== See also ==<br /><br />* Organization and practice of science: [[International Council of Science]] (ICSU).<br />* For an understanding of how these fields came to be: [[History of science]].<br />* See also [[scientist]]s for catalogs of people active in each of these fields.<br /><br />{{col-begin}}<br />{{col-break}}<br />* [[Arts]]<br />* [[Controversial science]]<br />* [[History of science and technology]]<br />* [[Historiography of science]]<br />* [[Junk science]]<br />* [[National Science Foundation]] ([[United States|USA]])<br />* [[Pathological science]]<br />* [[Philosophy of science]]<br />* [[Protoscience]]<br />* [[Pseudoscience]]<br />* [[Religion]]<br /><br />{{col-break}}<br />* [[Big Science]]<br />* [[Scientific computing]]<br />* [[Science education]]<br />* [[Scientific enterprise]]<br />* [[Scientific materialism]]<br />* [[Scientific method]]<br />* [[Scientific misconduct]]<br />* [[Scientific revolution]]<br />* [[The relationship between religion and science]]<br />* [[List of publications in science]]<br />* [[List of scientific howlers in literature]]<br />{{col-end}}<br /><br />== External articles and references==<br />{{Wikiquote}}<br /><br />=== Textbooks ===<br />* &quot;''[http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/General_Science GSCE science textbook]''&quot;. [[Wikibooks]].org<br />* [[National Center for Biotechnology Information]] [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?CMD=search&amp;DB=books Bookshelf]<br />* [http://www.techbooksforfree.com/science.shtml Science &amp; Engineering books for free download]<br /><br />=== News and articles ===<br />;News<br />* [http://forums.hypography.com Hypography - Science for everyone]<br />* [http://www.thesciencesite.info The Science Site] a New Zealand-based zine with realtime news feeds (very popular site, with the world's first Squidcam).<br />* [http://www.utopian.de/index.php Daily Science News] (German)<br />* [http://www.rinf.com/tech/ Strange Science and Technology News] (Alternative and under-reported video and audio streams with an analysis-ready news network with Online Analytical Processing and embedded Extract, Transform, and Load Data Mining capabilities.)<br />;Articles<br />* [http://science-advisor.net Science-advisor, Online Review of Scientific Articles] (Writings of short comments on scientific articles, reviews and letters with a scientific litterature search engine.)<br />* [http://www.yoga6d.com/ps.txt Popperian Science] Henning von Weber<br /><br />=== Resources ===<br />* &quot;''[http://www.newscientist.com Current Events]''&quot;. [[New Scientist]] Magazine, Reed Business Information Ltd.<br />* &quot;''[http://www.science.gov United States Science Initiative]''&quot;. Authoritative selected science information provided by U.S. Government agencies, including research and development results.<br />* &quot;''[http://www.newton.dep.anl.gov/ NEWTON BBS Ask A Scientist]''&quot;. The purpose is to provide a means to have questions answered that are not going to be easily found on the web or within common references.<br /><br />===Further reading===<br />* &quot;''[http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-57 Classification of the Sciences]''&quot;. Dictionary of the History of Ideas. <br />* Mendoza, Martha,&nbsp; &quot;''[http://www.spinwatch.org/modules.php?name=News&amp;file=article&amp;sid=1265 Allegations of Fake Scientific Research Hit New High]; U.S. Fielded Record 274 Scientific Misconduct Complaints Last Year, 50 Percent More Than in 2003''&quot;. [[ABC News]] (Associated Press), July 10, 2005. (source: spinwatch.org)<br />* Cole, K. C., &quot;''Things your teacher never told you about science (Nine shocking revelations!); Maybe you think that science is devoted to gathering and cataloging facts,&nbsp; and that scientists are a dull, deary lot who don't know how to have fun. Maybe you should think again.''&quot;. [[Newsday]], [[Long Island, New York]], March 23, 1986, pg 21+<br />* Bauer, Henry H., &quot;''[http://www.csu.edu.au/learning/eis/hbauer-intro.html Ethics in Science]''&quot;. Chemistry Department, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA. <br /><br /><!--Category Links-->