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~~<a href="mailto:~~j@bio.cc~~">j@bio.cc</a>~~, BiO Centre, Cambridge, UK

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c. 2,200,000,000 B.C.: aerobic respiration

c. 1,500,000,000 B.C.: Eukaryotes appeared.

c. 6,500,000 B.C.: Hominid appears.[<html><a href="http://anthro.palomar.edu/hominid/australo_1.htm">ref_1</a></html>]

Pre-historical and Historical events B.C.

c. 15,000 B.C.:     The dog domesticated in the northern East of Asia. <html><a href="http://bio.cc/Biology/origin_of_dogs_science_2002.html">Science 2002 Nov</a></html> 22;298(5598):1610-3, Savolainen P, Zhang YP, Luo J, Lundeberg J, Leitner T., Genetic evidence for an East Asian origin of domestic dogs.

c. 12,000 - 5000 B.C.:  Common grains and domestic animals such as millet, rice, potatoes, pumpkins, cattle, pigs, sheep, horses etc domesticated in Asia.

c. 6,000 B.C.:      Yeast used by Sumerians and Babylonians to make beer.

1864:     Ernst Haeckel (Häckel) outlines the essential elements of modern zoological classification

1865:     Chloroplasts found in plants by Julius von Sachs.

1865:     Gregory Mendel (1823-1884), Austria,  <img height="44" alt="img1.gif" src="http://bio.cc/Biohistory/img1.gif" width="52" border="0" /> established the genetic inheritance. The theoretical study of genetics. Experiments in Plant Hybridisation. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. His work, in German, was first published in 1865 in the Proceedings of the Brünn Society for Natural History, Brünn, Austria (<a href="http://bio.cc/Biohistory/history_of_biology.html#Hewlett">Hewlett, 1998</a>). It was ignored for a generation.

1866:     E  H Haeckel (Häckel) hypothesizes that the nucleus of a cell transmits its hereditary information

1866:     Louis Pasteur advances theory that germs are cause of disease.

1941:     Fritz Lipmann recognizes high energy phosphate bonds.

1941: The term "genetic engineering" is first used by Danish microbiologist A. Jost in a lecture on sexual reproduction in yeast at the technical Institute in Lwow, Poland.

1941: George Wells Beadle & Edward Lawrie Tatum. <html><a href="http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/Beadle_&_Tatum_experiment.htm">Genetic Control of Biochemical Reactions</a></html> in Neurospora: First sound scientific evidence for one-gene-one-enzyme (polypeptide) hypothesis. [Tatum receives the Nobel prize in 1958]

1942: Salvador Luria obtains first electron micrograph of a virus (to characterize a bacteriophage - a virus that infects bacteria. )

1943: First dialysis machine developed by Wilhelm Kolff.

1945: Melvin Calvin uses carbon-14 isotope to study photosynthesis.

1946: Max Delbruck and Alfred Hershey combine genes of viruses to form new virus.

1946: Genetic material can be transferred laterally between bacterial cells, as shown by Joshua <html><a href="http://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/BB/">Lederberg</a></html> and Tatum.

1946:     Discovery that genetic material from different viruses can be combined to form a new type of virus, an example of genetic recombination.

1947: Fritz Lipmann isolates coenzyme A

1949: John Enders grows poliomyelitis virus on tissue.

1949:     Pauling shows that sickle cell anemia is a "molecular disease" resulting from a mutation in the protein molecule hemoglobin.

1950:     <html><a href="http://bio.cc/Biohistory/artificial_insemination_of_livestock_1950.pdf">Artificial insemination</a></html> of livestock using frozen semen, was successfully accomplished.

1950:     <a href="http://biopeople.net/Biologists/Erwin_Chargaff">Erwin Chargaff</a> shows that the four nucleotides are not present in nucleic acids in stable proportions, and that the nucleotide composition differs according to its biological source. Chargaff, Erwin, ed. (1955-60). The Nucleic Acids: Chemistry and Biology. New York, Academic Press.

1951: Pauling and Corey propose the structure for the alpha-helix and beta-sheet (Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 27: 205-211, 1951; Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 37: 729-740, 1951).

1995:     The first free-living organism Haemophilus influenzea genome (1.8 Mb) is sequenced.

1995:     The smallest free-living organism Mycoplasma genitalium genome is sequenced.

1995:     The first open-community <html><a href="http://bioperl.net/">BioPerl</a></html> project (with other sister projects BioJava, BioLinux, etc) in bioinformatics initiated by Jong Park and Steve Brenner, Cambridge, MRC Centre, UK (<html><a href="http://bioperl.net/history_of_bioperl.html">history_of_bioperl.html</a></html>)

1996:     A diagnostic biosensor test allows instantaneous detection of a toxic strain of E. coli.

1996:     The genome for Saccharomyces cerevisiae (baker's yeast, 12.1 Mb) is sequenced.

Internet hisotyr: <a href="http://members.magnet.at/dmayr/history.htm">http://members.magnet.at/dmayr/history.htm</a>

<a href="http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/2250_History.htm">Biological hisotory to 1953: http://www.mun.ca/biology/scarr/2250_History.htm</a>

Long history of biology: <html><a href="http://www.crevola.com/laurent/sitelolo/histoire/historybc.html">http://www.crevola.com/laurent/sitelolo/histoire/historybc.html</a></html>

About Darwinism: <a href="http://www.aboutdarwin.com/literature/Pre_Dar.html">http://www.aboutdarwin.com/literature/Pre_Dar.html</a>

Theoretical Biology: <a href="http://www.zbi.ee/~uexkull/theor.htm">http://www.zbi.ee/~uexkull/theor.htm</a>

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