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Myopia

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Those with myopia see nearby objects clearly but distant objects appear blurred. With myopia, the eyeball is too long, or the cornea is too steep, so images are focused in the vitreous inside the eye rather than on the retina at the back of the eye. The opposite defect of myopia is hyperopia or "farsightedness" or "long-sightedness" — this is where the cornea is too flat or the eye is too short.

Mainstream ophthalmologists and optometrists most commonly correct myopia through the use of corrective lenses, such as glasses or contact lenses. It may also be corrected by refractive surgery, such as LASIK. The corrective lenses have a negative optical power (i.e. are concave) which compensates for the excessive positive diopters of the myopic eye. In some cases, pinhole glasses are used by patients with low-level myopia. These work by reducing the blur circle formed on the retina.

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<h2>Classification</h2>

<h2>Treatment, management, and prevention</h2>

Glasses are commonly used to address short-sightedness.</div>

</div>

<li id="_note-0"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-0">^</a> <a class="external free" title="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=myopia" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=myopia~~" rel="nofollow~~">http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=myopia</a> </li>

<li id="_note-Grosvenor">^ <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Grosvenor_0">a</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Grosvenor_1">b</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Grosvenor_2">c</a> Grosvenor T. "A review and a suggested classification system for myopia on the basis of age-related prevalence and age of onset." Am J Optom Physiol Opt. 1987 Jul;64(7):545-54. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=3307441" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=3307441">PMID 3307441</a> </li>

<li id="_note-Borish">^ <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Borish_0">a</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Borish_1">b</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Borish_2">c</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Borish_3">d</a> Borish, Irvin M. (1949). Clinical Refraction. Chicago: The Professional Press. </li>

<li id="_note-Cline">^ <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Cline_0">a</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Cline_1">b</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Cline_2">c</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Cline_3">d</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Cline_4">e</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Cline_5">f</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Cline_6">g</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Cline_7">h</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Cline_8">i</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Cline_9">j</a> <cite class="book" id="Reference-Cline-1997" style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Cline, D; Hofstetter HW; Griffin JR (1997). Dictionary of Visual Science, 4th ed, Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann. <a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0750698950">ISBN 0-7506-9895-0</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Visual+Science&rft.aulast=Cline&rft.aufirst=D&rft.edition=4th+ed&rft.pub=Butterworth-Heinemann&rft.place=Boston&rft.isbn=0-7506-9895-0">  </li>

<li id="_note-1"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-1">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Summanen, P; Kivitie-Kallio, S; Norio, R; Raitta, C; Kivelä, T (2002). "Mechanisms of myopia in Cohen syndrome mapped to chromosome 8q22". Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 43 (5): 1686–1693. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11980891" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11980891">PMID 11980891</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Mechanisms+of+myopia+in+Cohen+syndrome+mapped+to+chromosome+8q22&rft.jtitle=Invest.+Ophthalmol.+Vis.+Sci.&rft.date=2002&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=5&rft.aulast=Summanen&rft.aufirst=P&rft.pages=1686%E2%80%931693&rft_id=info:pmid/11980891">  </li>

<li id="_note-Goss"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Goss_0">^</a> <cite class="book" id="Reference-Goss-1988" style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Goss, DA; Eskridge JB (1988). "Myopia", in Amos, JB (ed): <a class="new" title="Template:Cite book/editor" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Cite_book/editor&action=edit"></a>Diagnosis and management in vision care. Boston: Butterworths, 445. <a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0409950823">ISBN 0409950823</a>. <a title="OCLC" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC">OCLC</a> <a class="external text" title="http://worldcat.org/oclc/14967262" rel="nofollow" href="http://worldcat.org/oclc/14967262~~" rel="nofollow~~">14967262</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Diagnosis+and+management+in+vision+care&rft.atitle=Myopia&rft.aulast=Goss&rft.aufirst=DA&rft.pub=Butterworths&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=445&rft.isbn=0409950823&rft_id=info:oclcnum/14967262">  </li> <li id="_note-AOA">^ <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-AOA_0">a</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-AOA_1">b</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-AOA_2">c</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-AOA_3">d</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-AOA_4">e</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-AOA_5">f</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-AOA_6">g</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-AOA_7">h</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-AOA_8">i</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-AOA_9">j</a> American Optometric Association. <a class="external text" title="http://www.aoa.org/documents/CPG-15.pdf" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.aoa.org/documents/CPG-15.pdf~~" rel="nofollow~~">Optometric Clinical Practice Guideline: Care of the patient with myopia.</a> 1997. </li> <li id="_note-2"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-2">^</a> Li CY, Lin KK, Lin YC, Lee JS. <a class="external text" title="http://www.cgmh.org.tw/cgmj/2503/250302.pdf" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.cgmh.org.tw/cgmj/2503/250302.pdf~~" rel="nofollow~~">"Low vision and methods of rehabilitation: a comparison between the past and present."</a> Chang Gung Med J. 2002 Mar;25(3):153-61. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12022735" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12022735">PMID 12022735</a>. </li> <li id="_note-Verma">^ <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Verma_0">a</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Verma_1">b</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Verma_2">c</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Verma_3">d</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Verma_4">e</a> Verma A, Singh D. <a class="external text" title="http://www.emedicine.com/oph/topic668.htm" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.emedicine.com/oph/topic668.htm~~" rel="nofollow~~">"Myopia, Phakic IOL."</a> eMedicine.com. August 19, 2005. </li> <li id="_note-3"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-3">^</a> The Eyecare Trust. <a class="external text" title="http://www.eye-care.org.uk/item_view.php?item_id=52&content_id=3" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.eye-care.org.uk/item_view.php?item_id=52&content_id=3~~" rel="nofollow~~">Night Driving - The Facts.</a> January 26, 2005. </li>

<li id="_note-Cassin"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Cassin_0">^</a> Cassin, B. and Solomon, S. Dictionary of Eye Terminology. Gainsville, Florida: Triad Publishing Company, 1990. </li>

<li id="_note-4"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-4">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Vukojević, N; Sikić J, Curković T, Juratovac Z, Katusic D, Saric B, Jukic T (2005). "Axial eye length after retinal detachment surgery". Collegium antropologicum 29 (Suppl 1): 25–27. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16193671" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16193671">PMID 16193671</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Axial+eye+length+after+retinal+detachment+surgery&rft.jtitle=Collegium+antropologicum&rft.date=2005&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=Suppl+1&rft.aulast=Vukojevi%C4%87&rft.aufirst=N&rft.pages=25%E2%80%9327&rft_id=info:pmid/16193671">  </li>

<li id="_note-5"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-5">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Metge, P; Donnadieu M (1993). "[Myopia and cataract]" (in French). La Revue du praticien 43 (14): 1784–1786. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=8310218" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=8310218">PMID 8310218</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=%5BMyopia+and+cataract%5D&rft.jtitle=La+Revue+du+praticien&rft.date=1993&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=14&rft.aulast=Metge&rft.aufirst=P&rft.pages=1784%E2%80%931786&rft_id=info:pmid/8310218">  </li>

<li id="_note-Shen">^ <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Shen_0">a</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Shen_1">b</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Shen, W; Vijayan M, Sivak JG (2005). "<a class="external text" title="http://www.iovs.org/cgi/content/full/46/5/1797" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.iovs.org/cgi/content/full/46/5/1797~~" rel="nofollow~~">Inducing form-deprivation myopia in fish</a>". Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 46 (5): 1797–1803. <a title="Digital object identifier" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" title="http://dx.doi.org/10.1167/iovs.04-1318" rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1167/iovs.04-1318~~" rel="nofollow~~">10.1167/iovs.04-1318</a>. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15851585" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15851585">PMID 15851585</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Inducing+form-deprivation+myopia+in+fish&rft.jtitle=Invest.+Ophthalmol.+Vis.+Sci.&rft.date=2005&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=5&rft.aulast=Shen&rft.aufirst=W&rft.pages=1797%E2%80%931803&rft_id=info:pmid/15851585&rft_id=info:doi/10.1167%2Fiovs.04-1318&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iovs.org%2Fcgi%2Fcontent%2Ffull%2F46%2F5%2F1797">  </li> <li id="_note-6"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-6">^</a> <a class="external text" title="http://www.eyemdlink.com/Condition.asp?ConditionID=2" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.eyemdlink.com/Condition.asp?ConditionID=2~~" rel="nofollow~~">"Glaucoma."</a> EyeMDLink.com. Retrieved August 27, 2006. </li> <li id="_note-7"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-7">^</a> Larkin GL. <a class="external text" title="http://www.emedicine.com/EMERG/topic504.htm" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.emedicine.com/EMERG/topic504.htm~~" rel="nofollow~~">"Retinal Detachment."</a> eMedicine.com. April 11, 2006. </li> <li id="_note-8"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-8">^</a> <a class="external text" title="http://www.agingeye.net/glaucoma/glaucomainformation.php" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.agingeye.net/glaucoma/glaucomainformation.php~~" rel="nofollow~~">"More Information on Glaucoma."</a> AgingEye Times. Retrieved August 27, 2006. </li>

<li id="_note-Morgan_1">^ <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Morgan_1_0">a</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Morgan_1_1">b</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Morgan_1_2">c</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Morgan_1_3">d</a> Morgan I, Rose K. "How genetic is school myopia?" Prog Retin Eye Res. 2005 Jan;24(1):1-38. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15555525" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15555525">PMID 15555525</a>. </li>

<li id="_note-9"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-9">^</a> Dunaway D, Berger I. <a class="external text" title="http://www.infocusonline.org/WORLDWIDE%20DISTRIBUTION%20OF%20VISUAL%20REFRACTIVE%20ERROR1.doc" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.infocusonline.org/WORLDWIDE%20DISTRIBUTION%20OF%20VISUAL%20REFRACTIVE%20ERROR1.doc~~" rel="nofollow~~">"Worldwide Distribution of Visual Refractive Errors and What to Expect at a Particular Location."</a> Retrieved August 31,2006. </li> <li id="_note-Fredrick">^ <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Fredrick_0">a</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Fredrick_1">b</a> Fredrick DR. <a class="external text" title="http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/324/7347/1195#B15" rel="nofollow" href="http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/324/7347/1195#B15~~" rel="nofollow~~">"Myopia."</a> BMJ. 2002 May 18;324(7347):1195-9. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12016188" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12016188">PMID 12016188</a>. </li> <li id="_note-10"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-10">^</a> National Research Council Commission. <a class="external text" title="http://darwin.nap.edu/books/0309040817/html" rel="nofollow" href="http://darwin.nap.edu/books/0309040817/html~~" rel="nofollow~~">"Myopia: Prevalence and Progression."</a> Washington, D.C. : National Academy Press, 1989. <a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=0309040817">ISBN 0-309-04081-7</a> </li>

<li id="_note-11"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-11">^</a> Logan NS, Davies LN, Mallen EA, Gilmartin B. Ametropia and ocular biometry in a UK university student population. Optom Vis Sci. 2005 Apr;82(4):261-6. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15829853" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15829853">PMID 15829853</a>. </li>

<li id="_note-12"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-12">^</a> Wensor M, McCarty CA, Taylor HR. Prevalence and risk factors of myopia in Victoria, Australia. Arch Ophthalmol. 1999 May;117(5):658-63. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10326965" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10326965">PMID 10326965</a>. </li>

<li id="_note-13"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-13">^</a> Junghans BM, Crewther SG. <a class="external text" title="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=15705207" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=15705207~~" rel="nofollow~~">"Little evidence for an epidemic of myopia in Australian primary school children over the last 30 years."</a> BMC Ophthalmol. 2005 Feb 11;5(1):1. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15705207" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15705207">PMID 15705207</a>. </li>

<li id="_note-14"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-14">^</a> Kempen JH, Mitchell P, Lee KE, Tielsch JM, Broman AT, Taylor HR, Ikram MK, Congdon NG, O'Colmain BJ; Eye Diseases Prevalence Research Group. "The prevalence of refractive errors among adults in the United States, Western Europe, and Australia." Arch Ophthalmol. 2004 Apr;122(4):495-505. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15078666" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15078666">PMID 15078666</a>. </li>

<li id="_note-15"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-15">^</a> Thorn F, Cruz AA, Machado AJ, Carvalho RA. "Refractive status of indigenous people in the northwestern Amazon region of Brazil." Optom Vis Sci. 2005 Apr;82(4):267-72. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15829854" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15829854">PMID 15829854</a>. </li>

<li id="_note-16"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-16">^</a> Garcia CA, Orefice F, Nobre GF, Souza Dde B, Rocha ML, Vianna RN. <a class="external text" title="http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0004-27492005000300009&tlng=en&lng=en&nrm=iso" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0004-27492005000300009&tlng=en&lng=en&nrm=iso~~" rel="nofollow~~">"Prevalence of refractive errors in students in Northeastern Brazil."</a> Arq Bras Oftalmol. 2005 May-Jun;68(3):321-5. Epub 2005 Jul 26. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16059562" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16059562">PMID 16059562</a>. </li> <li id="_note-Mavracanas">^ <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Mavracanas_0">a</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Mavracanas_1">b</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Mavracanas_2">c</a> Mavracanas TA, Mandalos A, Peios D, Golias V, Megalou K, Gregoriadou A, Delidou K, Katsougiannopoulos B. <a class="external text" title="http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1034/j.1600-0420.2000.078006656.x#search=%22myopia%2C%20prevalence%22" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1034/j.1600-0420.2000.078006656.x#search=%22myopia%2C%20prevalence%22~~" rel="nofollow~~">"Prevalence of myopia in a sample of Greek students."</a> Acta Ophthalmol Scand. 2000 Dec;78(6):656-9. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11167226" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11167226">PMID 11167226</a>. </li>

<li id="_note-17"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-17">^</a> Mohan M, Pakrasi S, Zutshi R. "Myopia in India." Acta Ophthalmol Suppl. 1988;185:19-23. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=2853533" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=2853533">PMID 2853533</a>. </li>

<li id="_note-18"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-18">^</a> Kempen JH, Mitchell P, Lee KE, Tielsch JM, Broman AT, Taylor HR, Ikram MK, Congdon NG, O'Colmain BJ; Eye Diseases Prevalence Research Group. "The prevalence of refractive errors among adults in the United States, Western Europe, and Australia." Arch Ophthalmol. 2004 Apr;122(4):495-505. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15078666" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15078666">PMID 15078666</a>. </li>

<li id="_note-19"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-19">^</a> Kleinstein RN, Jones LA, Hullett S, Kwon S, Lee RJ, Friedman NE, Manny RE, Mutti DO, Yu JA, Zadnik K; Collaborative Longitudinal Evaluation of Ethnicity and Refractive Error Study Group. <a class="external text" title="http://archopht.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/121/8/1141" rel="nofollow" href="http://archopht.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/abstract/121/8/1141~~" rel="nofollow~~">"Refractive error and ethnicity in children."</a> Arch Ophthalmol. 2003 Aug;121(8):1141-7. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12912692" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12912692">PMID 12912692</a>. </li>

<li id="_note-Sperduto">^ <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Sperduto_0">a</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Sperduto_1">b</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Sperduto_2">c</a> Sperduto RD, Seigel D, Roberts J, Rowland M. "Prevalence of myopia in the United States." Arch Ophthalmol. 1983 Mar;101(3):405-7. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=6830491" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=6830491">PMID 6830491</a>. </li>

<li id="_note-20"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-20">^</a> Kempen JH, Mitchell P, Lee KE, Tielsch JM, Broman AT, Taylor HR, Ikram MK, Congdon NG, O'Colmain BJ; Eye Diseases Prevalence Research Group. "The prevalence of refractive errors among adults in the United States, Western Europe, and Australia." Arch Ophthalmol. 2004 Apr;122(4):495-505. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15078666" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15078666">PMID 15078666</a>. </li>

<li id="_note-21"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-21">^</a> Mallen EA, Gammoh Y, Al-Bdour M, Sayegh FN. "Refractive error and ocular biometry in Jordanian adults." Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. 2005 Jul;25(4):302-9. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15953114" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15953114">PMID 15953114</a>. </li>

<li id="_note-22"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-22">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Kleinstein, RN; Jones LA, Hullett S, Kwon S, Lee RJ, Friedman NE, Manny RE, Mutti DO, Yu JA, Zadnik K (2003). "Refractive error and ethnicity in children". Arch. Ophthalmol. 121 (8): 1141–1147. <a title="Digital object identifier" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier">doi</a>:<a class="external text" title="http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archopht.121.8.1141" rel="nofollow" href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archopht.121.8.1141~~" rel="nofollow~~">10.1001/archopht.121.8.1141</a>. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12912692" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12912692">PMID 12912692</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Refractive+error+and+ethnicity+in+children&rft.jtitle=Arch.+Ophthalmol.&rft.date=2003&rft.volume=121&rft.issue=8&rft.aulast=Kleinstein&rft.aufirst=RN&rft.pages=1141%E2%80%931147&rft_id=info:pmid/12912692&rft_id=info:doi/10.1001%2Farchopht.121.8.1141">  </li> <li id="_note-23"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-23">^</a> <a class="external text" title="http://www.iblindness.org/books/bates/ch10.html" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.iblindness.org/books/bates/ch10.html~~" rel="nofollow~~">"Chapter X: Strain."</a> </li> <li id="_note-24"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-24">^</a> <a class="external text" title="http://www.iblindness.org/books/bates/ch7.html" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.iblindness.org/books/bates/ch7.html~~" rel="nofollow~~">"Chapter VII: The Variability of the Refraction of the Eye."</a> </li> <li id="_note-25"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-25">^</a> <a class="external text" title="http://www.iblindness.org/books/bates/ch4.html" ~~href~~rel="nofollow" href="http://www.iblindness.org/books/bates/ch4.html~~" rel="nofollow~~">Chapter IV : The Truth about Accommodation as Demonstrated by Experiments on the Eye Muscles of Fish, Cats, Dogs, Rabbits and Other Animals."</a> </li> <li id="_note-26"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-26">^</a> <a class="external text" title="http://www.iblindness.org/books/bates/ch1.html" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.iblindness.org/books/bates/ch1.html~~" rel="nofollow~~">"Chapter I: Introductory."</a> </li> <li id="_note-Bradley">^ <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Bradley_0">a</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Bradley_1">b</a> Robyn E. Bradley. "<a class="external text" title="http://visioneducators.com/articles/advocates_see_only_benefits_from_eye_exercises.pdf" rel="nofollow" href="http://visioneducators.com/articles/advocates_see_only_benefits_from_eye_exercises.pdf~~" rel="nofollow~~">ADVOCATES SEE ONLY BENEFITS FROM EYE EXERCISES</a>", The Boston Globe (MA), September 23, 2003.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adc&rft.type=newspaperArticle&rft.subject=News&rft.au=Robyn+E.+Bradley&rft.title=ADVOCATES+SEE+ONLY+BENEFITS+FROM+EYE+EXERCISES&rft.identifier=http%3A%2F%2Fvisioneducators.com%2Farticles%2Fadvocates_see_only_benefits_from_eye_exercises.pdf&rft.publisher=The+Boston+Globe+%28MA%29&rft.date=September+23%2C+2003">  </li> <li id="_note-Rawstron">^ <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Rawstron_0">a</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Rawstron_1">b</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Rawstron JA, Burley CD, Elder MJ (2005). "<a class="external text" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=15825744&query_hl=13&itool=pubmed_DocSum" ~~href~~rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=15825744&query_hl=13&itool=pubmed_DocSum~~" rel="nofollow~~">A systematic review of the applicability and efficacy of eye exercises.</a>". J Pediatr Ophthalmol Strabismus 42 (2): 82-8.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=A+systematic+review+of+the+applicability+and+efficacy+of+eye+exercises.&rft.jtitle=J+Pediatr+Ophthalmol+Strabismus&rft.date=2005&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=2&rft.au=Rawstron+JA%2C+Burley+CD%2C+Elder+MJ&rft.pages=82-8&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fentrez%2Fquery.fcgi%3Fdb%3Dpubmed%26cmd%3DRetrieve%26dopt%3DAbstractPlus%26list_uids%3D15825744%26query_hl%3D13%26itool%3Dpubmed_DocSum">  </li> <li id="_note-Mutti"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Mutti_0">^</a> Mutti D. <a class="external text" title="http://www.revoptom.com/index.asp?ArticleType=SiteSpec&page=osc/apr01/lesson_0401.htm" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.revoptom.com/index.asp?ArticleType=SiteSpec&page=osc/apr01/lesson_0401.htm~~" rel="nofollow~~">"Can We Conquer Myopia?"</a> Review of Optomery. Optometric Study Center: April, 2001. </li> <li id="_note-27"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-27">^</a> <a class="external free" title="http://arapaho.nsuok.edu/~salmonto/VSIII_2006/Lecture27.pdf" rel="nofollow" href="http://arapaho.nsuok.edu/~salmonto/VSIII_2006/Lecture27.pdf~~" rel="nofollow~~">http://arapaho.nsuok.edu/~salmonto/VSIII_2006/Lecture27.pdf</a> </li> <li id="_note-Saw_1">^ <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Saw_1_0">a</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Saw_1_1">b</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Saw_1_2">c</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Saw_1_3">d</a> Saw SM, Gazzard G, Au Eong KG, Tan DT. <a class="external text" title="http://bjo.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/short/86/11/1306" rel="nofollow" href="http://bjo.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/short/86/11/1306~~" rel="nofollow~~">"Myopia: attempts to arrest progression."</a> Br J Ophthalmol. 2002 Nov;86(11):1306-11. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12386095" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12386095">PMID 12386095</a>. </li>

<li id="_note-28"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-28">^</a> Schor C. "The influence of interactions between accommodation and convergence on the lag of accommodation." Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. 1999 Mar;19(2):134-50. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10615449" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10615449">PMID 10615449</a>. </li>

<li id="_note-Xu"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Xu_0">^</a> Xu L, Li J, Cui T, Hu A, Fan G, Zhang R, Yang H, Sun B, Jonas JB. "Refractive error in urban and rural adult Chinese in Beijing." Ophthalmology. 2005 Oct;112(10):1676-83. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16111755" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16111755">PMID 16111755</a>. </li>

<li id="_note-Wolffsohn"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Wolffsohn_0">^</a> Wolffsohn JS, Gilmartin B, Li RW, Edwards MH, Chat SW, Lew JK, Yu BS. <a class="external text" title="http://www.iovs.org/cgi/content/full/44/5/2284" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.iovs.org/cgi/content/full/44/5/2284~~" rel="nofollow~~">"Nearwork-induced transient myopia in preadolescent Hong Kong Chinese."</a> Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2003 May;44(5):2284-9. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12714672" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12714672">PMID 12714672</a>. </li>

<li id="_note-29"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-29">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Saw S, Tong L, Chua W, Chia K, Koh D, Tan D, Katz J (2005). "Incidence and progression of myopia in Singaporean school children.". Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 46 (1): 51-7. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15623754" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15623754">PMID 15623754</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Incidence+and+progression+of+myopia+in+Singaporean+school+children.&rft.jtitle=Invest+Ophthalmol+Vis+Sci&rft.date=2005&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=1&rft.au=Saw+S%2C+Tong+L%2C+Chua+W%2C+Chia+K%2C+Koh+D%2C+Tan+D%2C+Katz+J&rft.pages=51-7">  </li>

<li id="_note-Hammond"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Hammond_0">^</a> Hammond CJ, Andrew T, Mak YT, Spector TD. <a class="external text" title="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=15307048" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pubmed&pubmedid=15307048~~" rel="nofollow~~">"A susceptibility locus for myopia in the normal population is linked to the PAX6 gene region on chromosome 11: a genomewide scan of dizygotic twins."</a> Am J Hum Genet. 2004 Aug;75(2):294-304. Epub 2004 Jun 24. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15307048" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15307048">PMID 15307048</a> </li>

<li id="_note-Morgan_2"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Morgan_2_0">^</a> Morgan I, Megaw P. Using natural STOP growth signals to prevent excessive axial elongation and the development of myopia. Ann Acad Med Singapore. 2004 Jan;33(1):16-20. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15008556" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15008556">PMID 15008556</a> </li>

<li id="_note-30"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-30">^</a> Saw SM, Katz J, Schein OD, Chew SJ, Chan TK. <a class="external text" title="http://epirev.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/18/2/175.pdf?ijkey=4b53ec70497f8fb9e4972067851564674f1a6f08" rel="nofollow" href="http://epirev.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/18/2/175.pdf?ijkey=4b53ec70497f8fb9e4972067851564674f1a6f08~~" rel="nofollow~~">"Epidemiology of myopia."</a> Epidemiol Rev. 1996;18(2):175-87. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=9021311" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=9021311">PMID 9021311</a>. </li>

<li id="_note-31"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-31">^</a> Drexler W, Findl O, Schmetterer L, Hitzenberger CK, Fercher AF. "Eye elongation during accommodation in humans: differences between emmetropes and myopes." Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1998 Oct;39(11):2140-7. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=9761293" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=9761293">PMID 9761293</a>. </li>

<li id="_note-Saw_2">^ <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Saw_2_0">a</a> <a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Saw_2_1">b</a> Saw SM, Wu HM, Hong CY, Chua WH, Chia KS, Tan D. <a class="external text" title="http://bjo.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/85/5/527" rel="nofollow" href="http://bjo.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/85/5/527~~" rel="nofollow~~">"Myopia and night lighting in children in Singapore."</a> Br J Ophthalmol. 2001 May;85(5):527-8. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11316706" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11316706">PMID 11316706</a>. </li>

<li id="_note-32"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-32">^</a> Quinn GE, Shin CH, Maguire MG, Stone RA. "Myopia and ambient lighting at night." Nature. 1999 May 13;399(6732):113-4. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10335839" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10335839">PMID 10335839</a>. </li>

<li id="_note-33"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-33">^</a> Zadnik K, Jones LA, Irvin BC, Kleinstein RN, Manny RE, Shin JA, Mutti DO. "Myopia and ambient night-time lighting. CLEERE Study Group. Collaborative Longitudinal Evaluation of Ethnicity and Refractive Error." Nature. 2000 Mar 9;404(6774):143-4. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10724157" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10724157">PMID 10724157</a>. </li>

<li id="_note-34"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-34">^</a> Gwiazda J, Ong E, Held R, Thorn F. "Myopia and ambient night-time lighting." Nature. 2000 Mar 9;404(6774):144. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10724158" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10724158">PMID 10724158</a>. </li>

<li id="_note-35"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-35">^</a> Guggenheim JA, Hill C, Yam TF. <a class="external text" title="http://bjo.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/87/5/580#R13" rel="nofollow" href="http://bjo.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/87/5/580#R13~~" rel="nofollow~~">"Myopia, genetics, and ambient lighting at night in a UK sample."</a> Br J Ophthalmol. 2003 May;87(5):580-2. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12714399" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12714399">PMID 12714399</a>. </li>

<li id="_note-36"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-36">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Saw S, Tong L, Chua W, Chia K, Koh D, Tan D, Katz J (2005). "Incidence and progression of myopia in Singaporean school children.". Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 46 (1): 51-7. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15623754" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15623754">PMID 15623754</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Incidence+and+progression+of+myopia+in+Singaporean+school+children.&rft.jtitle=Invest+Ophthalmol+Vis+Sci&rft.date=2005&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=1&rft.au=Saw+S%2C+Tong+L%2C+Chua+W%2C+Chia+K%2C+Koh+D%2C+Tan+D%2C+Katz+J&rft.pages=51-7">  </li>

<li id="_note-37"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-37">^</a> Bowan M. <a class="external text" title="http://www.nb.net/%7Esparrow/stressandeye.html" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.nb.net/~sparrow/stressandeye.html~~" rel="nofollow~~">"Stress and Eye: New Speculations on Refractive Error."</a> J. Behavioral Optom. 7(5)115-22, 1996. </li>

<li id="_note-38"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-38">^</a> Bayramlar H, Cekic O, Hepsen IF. "Does convergence, not accommodation, cause axial-length elongation at near? A biometric study in teens." Ophthalmic Res. 1999;31(4):304-8. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10325546" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10325546">PMID 10325546</a>. </li>

<li id="_note-39"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-39">^</a> Czepita D, Filipiak D. [The effect of the type of astigmatism on the incidence of myopia]. Klin Oczna. 2005;107(1-3):73-4. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16052807" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16052807">PMID 16052807</a>. </li>

<li id="_note-Koslowe"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Koslowe_0">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Koslowe KC, Spierer A, Rosner M, et al. (1991). "Evaluation of accommotrac biofeedback training for myopia control.". Optom Vis Sci 68: 252-4.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Evaluation+of+accommotrac+biofeedback+training+for+myopia+control.&rft.jtitle=Optom+Vis+Sci&rft.date=1991&rft.volume=68&rft.au=Koslowe+KC%2C+Spierer+A%2C+Rosner+M%2C+et+al.&rft.pages=252-4">  </li>

<li id="_note-Rehm"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Rehm_0">^</a> Rehm, Donald "The Myopia Myth-The Truth About Nearsightedness And How To Prevent It" Chapter 6 Published by The International Myopia Prevention Assn., 1054 Gravel Hill Road, Ligonier, PA 15658. 1981 <a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Booksources&isbn=096084760X">ISBN 0-9608476-0-X</a> </li>

<li id="_note-NS"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-NS_0">^</a> Andy Coghlan and Michael Le Page. "<a class="external text" title="http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn3082" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn3082~~" rel="nofollow~~">Eye correction is seriously short sighted</a>", New Scientist, 20 November 2002.<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adc&rft.type=newspaperArticle&rft.subject=News&rft.au=Andy+Coghlan+and+Michael+Le+Page&rft.title=Eye+correction+is+seriously+short+sighted&rft.identifier=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newscientist.com%2Farticle.ns%3Fid%3Ddn3082&rft.publisher=New+Scientist&rft.date=20+November+2002">  </li>

<li id="_note-40"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-40">^</a> Chung K, Mohidin N, O'Leary DJ. "Undercorrection of myopia enhances rather than inhibits myopia progression." Vision Res. 2002 Oct;42(22):2555-9. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12445849" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12445849">PMID 12445849</a>. </li>

<li id="_note-Wildoset"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Wildoset_0">^</a> The Wildoset Lab.. <a class="external text" title="http://vision.berkeley.edu/wildsoet/myopiaNews/controllingMyopia.html" rel="nofollow" href="http://vision.berkeley.edu/wildsoet/myopiaNews/controllingMyopia.html~~" rel="nofollow~~">Controlling Myopia Progression - A Confusing Story</a>. Retrieved on <a class="new" title="September 1, 2006" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=September_1%2C_2006&action=edit">September 1, 2006</a>. </li>

<li id="_note-Siatkowski"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-Siatkowski_0">^</a> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Siatkowski R, Cotter S, Miller J, Scher C, Crockett R, Novack G (2004). "Safety and efficacy of 2% pirenzepine ophthalmic gel in children with myopia: a 1-year, multicenter, double-masked, placebo-controlled parallel study.". Arch Ophthalmol 122 (11): 1667-74. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15534128" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=15534128">PMID 15534128</a>.</cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Safety+and+efficacy+of+2%25+pirenzepine+ophthalmic+gel+in+children+with+myopia%3A+a+1-year%2C+multicenter%2C+double-masked%2C+placebo-controlled+parallel+study.&rft.jtitle=Arch+Ophthalmol&rft.date=2004&rft.volume=122&rft.issue=11&rft.au=Siatkowski+R%2C+Cotter+S%2C+Miller+J%2C+Scher+C%2C+Crockett+R%2C+Novack+G&rft.pages=1667-74">  </li>

<li id="_note-41"><a title="" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myopia#_ref-41">^</a> Ong E, Grice K, Held R, Thorn F, Gwiazda J. "Effects of spectacle intervention on the progression of myopia in children." Optom Vis Sci. 1999 Jun;76(6):363-9. <a class="external" title="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10416930" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=10416930">PMID 10416930</a>. </li>

<h2>External links</h2>

<ul>

<li><a class="external text" title="http://www.pupileyes.com/index.php?content=myopia&lang=english" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.pupileyes.com/index.php?content=myopia&lang=english~~" rel="nofollow~~">pupilEyes - Learn how Myopia happens</a> </li> <li><a class="external text" title="http://www.myopia-manual.de/" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.myopia-manual.de/~~" rel="nofollow~~">Myopia Manual — an impartial documentation of all the reasons, therapies and recommendations</a> — summary of scientific publications, status February 2007 </li> <li><a class="external text" title="http://www.VisionSimulations.com/" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.visionsimulations.com/~~" rel="nofollow~~">VisionSimulations.com |What the world looks like to people with various diseases and conditions of the eye</a> </li> <li><a class="external text" title="http://vision.berkeley.edu/wildsoet/index.html" rel="nofollow" href="http://vision.berkeley.edu/wildsoet/index.html~~" rel="nofollow~~">The Wildsoet Lab</a> - Myopia research at the University of California, Berkeley </li> <li><a class="external text" title="http://www.ssc.education.ed.ac.uk/resources/vi&multi/eyeconds/Myop.html" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ssc.education.ed.ac.uk/resources/vi&multi/eyeconds/Myop.html~~" rel="nofollow~~">Scottish Sensory Centre - Medical Info on Myopia</a> </li>

</ul>

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