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<p>:''For other meanings, see [[<strong>Botany (disambiguation)]]''</pstrong><p>'''Botany''' is the [[Scientific method|scientific study]] of plant [[life]]. plantlife. As a branch of [[biology]], it is also sometimes referred to as '''called <strong>plant science(s)''' </strong>, <strong>phytology</strong>, or '''<strong>plant biology'''</strong>. Botany covers a wide range of scientific disciplines that study the [[plants, algae, and fungi including: structure, growth]], [[reproduction]], [[metabolism]], [[morphogenesis|development]], [[phytopathology|diseases]], [[ecology]], and [[evolution]] chemical properties and evolutionary relationships between the different groups. The study of [[plant|plants]].<and botany began with tribal lore, used to identify edible, medicinal and poisonous plants, making botany one of the oldest sciences. From this ancient interest in plants, the scope of botany has increased to include the study of over 550,000 kinds or species of living organisms.</p><pscript type="text/javascript">//<![CDATA[Image:US long grain rice if (window.jpg|right|thumb|Nearly all the food we eat comes showTocToggle) { var tocShowText = "show"; var tocHideText = "hide"; showTocToggle(directly and indirectly) from plants like this American long grain rice.]; } //]]></script><p> </p><ph2><strongspan class="mw-headline">Scope and importance of botany</strongspan><br /h2>As with other life forms in biology, plant life can be studied from different perspectives, from the [[molecular biology|molecular]], [[genetics|genetic]] and [[biochemistry|biochemical]] level through [[organelle]]s, [[cell biology|cells]], [[biological tissue|tissues]]<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="WIDTH: 252px"><img class="thumbimage" height="188" alt="Hibiscus" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Beli-hibiskus.jpg/250px-Beli-hibiskus.jpg" width="250" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Beli-hibiskus.jpg" /><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify" style="FLOAT: right"><img height="11" alt="" src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></div>Hibiscus</div></div></div><p>As with other life forms in biology, [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]splant life can be studied from different perspectives, from the molecular, genetic and biochemical level through organelles, cells, tissues, organs, individuals, plant [[population]]spopulations, and [[biodiversity|communities]] of plants. At each of these levels a botanist might be concerned with the classification ([[taxonomy]]taxonomy), structure ([[anatomy]]), or function ([[plant physiology|physiology]]) of plant life.</p><p>Historically, botany covers all organisms that were not considered to be [[animal]]sanimals. Some of these "plant-like" organisms include [[fungi]] (studied in [[mycology]]), [[bacterium|bacteria]] and [[viruses]] (studied in [[microbiology]]), and [[algae]] (studied in [[phycology]]). Most algae, fungi, and microbes are no longer considered to be in the plant kingdom. However, attention is still given to them by botanists, and bacteria, fungi, and algae are usually covered in introductory botany courses. </p><p>So why The study of plants? has importance for a number of reasons. Plants are a fundamental part of life on earth. They generate the [[oxygen]], [[food]], [[fibre]]s, fibres, fuel and medicine that allow higher life forms to exist. Plants also absorb [[carbon dioxide]]through photosynthesis, a significant [[minor greenhouse gas]], through [[photosynthesis]]that in large amounts can effect global climate. A good understanding of plants It is believed that the evolution of plants has changed the global atmosphere of the earth early in the earth's history and paleobotanists study ancient plants in the fossil record. A good understanding of plants is crucial to the future of human societies as it allows us to:<br /p>* Feed the world<br /ul>* Understand <li>Produce food to feed an expanding population </li> <li>Understand fundamental life processes<br /li>* Utilise <li>Produce medicine and materialsto treat diseases and other ailments <br /li>* <li>Understand environmental changesmore clearly </pli><p/ul><strongp>Feed the world </strongp><h3><span class="mw-headline">Human nutrition</span><br /h3>Virtually ''<div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="WIDTH: 182px"><img class="thumbimage" height="225" alt="Nearly all'' of the food we eat comes (directly and indirectly) from plants, either directly from [[staple food]]s and other [[fruit]] and [[vegetables]], or indirectly through [[livestock]], which rely on plants for [[fodder]]like this American long grain rice." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/US_long_grain_rice.jpg/180px-US_long_grain_rice. In other words, plants are at the base of nearly all [[food chain]]s, or what ecologists call the first [[trophic level]]jpg" width="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:US_long_grain_rice. Understanding how plants produce the jpg" /><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify" style="FLOAT: right"><img height="11" alt="" src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></div>Nearly all the food we eat is therefore important to be able to ''feed the world'' comes (directly and provide [[food security]] for future generations, for example through [[plant breeding]]. Not indirectly) from plants like this American long grain rice.</div></div></div><p>Virtually all foods eaten comes from plants are beneficial to humans, [[weeds]] are a considerable problem in [[agriculture]] either directly from staple foods and other fruit and botany provides some of the basic science in order to understand how to minimise vegetables, or indirectly through livestock or other animals, which rely on plants for their impactnutrition. [[Ethnobotany]] is Plants are the study fundamental base of this nearly all food chains because they use the energy from the sun and other relationships between plants nutrients from the soil and atmosphere and convert them into a form that can be consumed and peopleutilized by animals, this is what ecologists call the first trophic level.Botanists also study how plants produce food we can eat and how to increase yields and therefore their work is important in mankind's ability to </p><pem>[[Image:mendel.png|frame|left|[[Gregor Mendel]] laid feed the foundations of genetics from his studies of world</em> and provide food security for future generations, for example through plant breeding. Botanists also study weeds, plantswhich are considered to be a nuisance in a particular location.]]</p><p><strong>Understand fundamental life processes</strong><br />Plants are convenient organisms Weeds are a considerable problem in which fundamental life processes (like [[cell division]] agriculture, and botany provides some of the basic science used to understand how to minimize 'weed' impact in agriculture and [[protein synthesis]] for example) can be studied, without native ecosystems. Ethnobotany is the ethical dilemmas study of studying animals or humansthe relationships between plants and people. The [[mendelian inheritance|genetic laws of inheritance]] were discovered in this way by [[</p><div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="WIDTH: 155px"><img class="thumbimage" height="204" alt="Gregor Mendel]], who was studying laid the way [[peas|pea]] shape is inherited. What Mendel learnt foundations of genetics from studying his studies of plants has had far reaching benefits outside of botany. Additionally, [[Barbara McClintock]] discovered '[[transposon|jumping genes]]' by studying [[maize]]" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Mendel.png" width="153" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Mendel. These are a few examples that demonstrate how botanical research has an ongoing relevance to png" /><div class="thumbcaption">Gregor Mendel laid the understanding foundations of genetics from his studies of fundamental biological processesplants.</pdiv><p/div><strong/div>Utilise medicine and materials</strongp> <br /p>Many of our [[medication|medicinal]] <h3><span class="mw-headline">Fundamental life processes</span></h3><p>Plants are convenient organisms in which fundamental life processes (like cell division and [[recreational drugs]], like [[cannabis (drugprotein synthesis for example)|cannabis]]can be studied, [[caffeine]], and [[nicotine]] come directly from the plant kingdomwithout the ethical dilemmas of studying animals or humans. [[Aspirin]]The genetic laws of inheritance were discovered in this way by Gregor Mendel, which originally came from who was studying the [[bark]] of [[willow]] trees, way pea shape is just one exampleinherited. There may be many [[drug discovery|novel cures for diseases]] provided by plantsWhat Mendel learned from studying plants has had far reaching benefits outside of botany. Additionally, waiting to be Barbara McClintock discovered'jumping genes' by studying maize. Popular [[stimulant]]s like [[coffee]], [[chocolate]], [[tobacco]], These are a few examples that demonstrate how botanical research has an ongoing relevance to the understanding of fundamental biological processes.</p><p> </p><h3><span class="mw-headline">Medicine and [[tea]] also come from plants. Most [[Alcoholic beverage|alcoholic beverages]] come from [[fermentation|fermenting]] plants such as [[hops]] and [[grapes]].</pmaterials</span></h3><p>Plants also provide us with many natural materialsMany medicinal and recreational drugs, such as [[cotton]]like cannabis, [[wood]]caffeine, [[paper]]and nicotine come directly from the plant kingdom. Aspirin, [[linen]], [[vegetable oil]]s, some types which originally came from the bark of [[rope]]willow trees, and [[rubber]]is just one example. The production of [[silk]] would not There may be possible without the cultivation of the [[mulberry]] plantmany novel cures for diseases provided by plants, waiting to be discovered. [[Sugarcane]] Popular stimulants like coffee, chocolate, tobacco, and other tea also come from plants have recently been put to use . Most alcoholic beverages come from fermenting plants such as sources of [[biofuel]]s, which are important alternatives to [[fossil fuel]]sbarley malt and grapes.</p><p><strong>Understand environmental changes</strong><br />Plants can also help Plants also provide us understand changes in on our environment in with many ways. </p><p>*Understanding [[habitat destruction]] natural materials, such as cotton, wood, paper, linen, vegetable oils, some types of rope, and [[endangered species|species extinction]] is dependent on an accurate and complete catalogue rubber. The production of silk would not be possible without the cultivation of the mulberry plant [[systematics]] . Sugarcane, rapeseed, soy and [[taxonomy]].other plants with a highly-fermentable sugar or oil content have recently been put to use as sources of biofuels, which are important alternatives to fossil fuels, see biodiesel.<br /p>*Plant responses to [[ultraviolet|ultraviolet radiation]] can help us monitor problems like the [[ozone depletion]]. <br p> </p>*[[palynology|Analysing pollen]] deposited by plants [[geologic timescale|thousands or millions of years ago]] <h3><span class="mw-headline">Environmental changes</span></h3><p>Plants can also help scientists to reconstruct past climates and predict future ones, an essential part of [[climate change]] researchus understand changes in on our environment in many ways.<br /p>*Recording <ul> <li>Understanding habitat destruction and analysing the timing of plant [[biological life cycle|life cycles]] are important parts species extinction is dependent on an accurate and complete catalog of [[phenology]] used in climate-change researchplant systematics and taxonomy.<br /li>*[[Lichens]], which are sensitive <li>Plant responses to atmospheric conditions, have been extenisvely used as [[pollution]] indicatorsultraviolet radiation can help us monitor problems like the ozone depletion.</pli> <pli>In many different ways, Analyzing pollen deposited by plants thousands or millions of years ago can act a bit like the '[[canary|miners canary]]'help scientists to reconstruct past climates and predict future ones, an ''early warning system'' alerting us to important changes in our environmentessential part of climate change research. In addition to these practical </li> <li>Recording and scientific reasons, [[list of gardens|plants analyzing the timing of plant life cycles are extremely valuable as recreation]] for millions important parts of people who enjoy [[gardening]], [[horticulture|horticultural]] and [[herb|culinary]] uses of plants every day.phenology used in climate-change research. </li> </pli><p><strong>HistoryLichens, which are sensitive to atmospheric conditions, have been extensively used as pollution indicators. </strongli></pul><p>In many different ways, plants can act a little like the 'miners canary', an <strongem>Early botany (before 1945)early warning system</strongem><br />[[Image:Botanyalerting us to important changes in our environment.jpg|thumb|right|The traditional tools In addition to these practical and scientific reasons, plants are extremely valuable as recreation for millions of people who enjoy gardening, horticultural and culinary uses of a botanistplants every day.]]<br /p>Among the earliest of botanical works, written around [[300 B.C.]], are two large treatises by [[Theophrastus]]: ''On the History of Plants'' (''[[Historia Plantarum]]'') and ''On <p> </p><h2><span class="mw-headline">Etymology</span></h2><p>From Greek βοτάνη = "pasture, grass, fodder", perhaps via the Causes idea of Plants''. Together these books constitute the most important contribution a livestock keeper needing to know which plants are safe for livestock to botanical science during antiquity and on into the Middle Ages. The Roman medical writer [[Dioscorides]] provides important evidence on Greek and Roman knowledge of medicinal plantseat.</p><pp> </p><h2><span class="mw-headline">History</span>In 1665, using an early microscope, [[Robert Hooke]] discovered [[cell (biology)|cells]] in [[cork (material)|cork]], </h2><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="WIDTH: 182px"><img class="thumbimage" height="252" alt="The traditional tools of a botanist." src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a short time later in living plant tissue/a1/Botany.jpg/180px-Botany. The German [[Leonhart Fuchs]], the Swiss [[Conrad von Gesner]], and the British authors [[Nicholas Culpeper]] and [[John Gerard]] published herbals that gave information on the medicinal uses of plantsjpg" width="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:Botany.jpg" /><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify" style="FLOAT: right"><img height="11" alt="" src="http://en.wikipedia.<org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /p><p><strong/div>The traditional tools of a botanist.</div>Modern botany (since 1945</strongdiv><br /div>A considerable amount of new knowledge today is being generated from studying [[model organisms|model plants]] like ''[[Arabidopsis thaliana]]''. This mustard weed was one of <p>Among the first plants to have its [[genome]] sequencedearliest of botanical works, written around 300 B.C. The sequencing of the rice genome and a , are two large international research community have made [[rice]] treatises by Theophrastus: <em>On the de facto [[cereal]]History of Plants</[[grass]]em> (<em>Historia Plantarum</[[monocot]] modelem>) and <em>On the Causes of Plants</em>. Another grass species, [[Brachypodium distachyon]] is also emerging as an experimental model for understanding Together these books constitute the genetic, cellular most important contribution to botanical science during antiquity and molecular biology of temperate grasseson into the Middle Ages. Other commercially The Roman medical writer Dioscorides provides important staple foods like [[wheat]]evidence on Greek and Roman knowledge of medicinal plants.</p><p>In ancient China, [[maize]], [[barley]], [[rye]], [[millet]] the recorded listing of different plants and [[soybean]] are also having their genomes sequencedherb concoctions for pharmaceutical purposes spans back to at least the Warring States (481 BC-221 BC). Some Many Chinese writers over the centuries contributed to the written knowledge of these are challenging to sequence because they have more than two [[haploid]] herbal pharmaceutics. There was the Han Dynasty (n202 BC-220 AD) sets written work of [[chromosome]]sthe Huangdi Neijing and the famous pharmacologist Zhang Ji of the 2nd century. There was also the 11th century scientists and statesmen Su Song and Shen Kuo, a condition known as [[polyploid|polyploidy]], common in who compiled treatises on herbal medicine and included the plant kingdomuse of mineralogy. The "Green Yeast" ''[[Chlamydomonas reinhardtii]]'' (a single-celled</p><p>In 1665, green [[alga]]) is another using an early microscope, Robert Hooke discovered cells in cork, and a short time later in living plant model organism that has been extensively studied tissue. The German Leonhart Fuchs, the Swiss Conrad von Gesner, and the British authors Nicholas Culpeper and provided important insights into cell biologyJohn Gerard published herbals that gave information on the medicinal uses of plants.</p><p>In 1754 Carl von Linné (Carl Linnaeus) devided the plant Kingdom into 25 classes. One, the <strong>Cryptogamia</strong>, included all the plants with concealed reproductive parts (algae, fungi, mosses and liverworts and ferns).<sup class="reference" id="_ref-Hoek.2C_Mann_and_Jahns_95_0">[1]</sup></p><p> </p><h3><span class="mw-headline">Modern botany</span></h3><p>A considerable amount of new knowledge today is being generated from studying model plants like <em>Arabidopsis thaliana</em>. This weedy species in the mustard family was one of the first plants to have its genome sequenced. The sequencing of the rice (<em>Oryza sativa</em>) genome and a large international research community have made rice the de facto cereal/grass/monocot model. Another grass species, <em>Brachypodium distachyon</em> is also emerging as an experimental model for understanding the genetic, cellular and molecular biology of temperate grasses. Other commercially-important staple foods like wheat, maize, barley, rye, pearl millet and soybean are also having their genomes sequenced. Some of these are challenging to sequence because they have more than two haploid (n) sets of chromosomes, a condition known as polyploidy, common in the plant kingdom. <em>Chlamydomonas reinhardtii</em> (a single-celled, green alga) is another plant model organism that has been extensively studied and provided important insights into cell biology.</p><p>In 1998 the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group published a phylogeny of flowering plants based on an analysis of DNA sequences from most families of flowering plants. As a result of this work, major questions such which families represent the earliest branches in the genealogy of angiosperms are now understood. Investigating how plant species are related to each other allows botanists to better understand the process of evolution in plants.</p><p> </p><h3><span class="mw-headline">Subdisciplines of Botany</span></h3><ul> <li>Agronomy—Application of plant science to crop production </li> <li>Bryology—Mosses, liverworts, and hornwarts </li> <li>Economic botany—The place of plants in economics </li> <li>Ethnobotany—Relationship between humans and plants </li> <li>Forestry—Forest management and related studies </li> <li>Horticulture—Cultivated plants </li> <li>Paleobotany—Fossil plants </li> <li>Palynology—Pollen and spores </li> <li>Phytochemistry—Plant secondary chemistry and chemical processes </li> <li>Phytomorphology—Structure and life cycles </li> <li>Plant anatomy—Cell and tissue structure </li> <li>Plant ecology—Role of plants in the environment </li> <li>Plant genetics—Genetic inheritance in plants </li> <li>Plant pathology—Plant diseases </li> <li>Plant systematics—Classification and naming of plants </li></ul><p> </p><h2><span class="mw-headline">See also</span></h2><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="WIDTH: 182px"><img class="thumbimage" height="295" alt="Crantz's Classis cruciformium..., 1769" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/H_J_N_Crantz_Classis_cruciformium.jpg/180px-H_J_N_Crantz_Classis_cruciformium.jpg" width="180" longdesc="/wiki/Image:H_J_N_Crantz_Classis_cruciformium.jpg" /><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify" style="FLOAT: right"><img height="11" alt="" src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></div>Crantz's <em>Classis cruciformium...</em>, 1769</div></div></div><ul> <li>History of plant systematics </li> <li>History of phycology </li> <li>Botanical garden and List of botanical gardens </li> <li>Dendrochronology </li> <li>List of domesticated plants </li> <li>Edible Flowers </li> <li>Flowers and List of flowers </li> <li>Forestry </li> <li>Herbs </li> <li>List of botanical journals </li> <li>List of botanists </li> <li>List of botanists by author abbreviation </li> <li>List of publications in biology </li> <li>Paleobotany </li> <li>Palynology </li> <li>Plant anatomy </li> <li>Plant physiology </li> <li>Plant community </li> <li>Plant sexuality </li> <li>Soil science </li> <li>Trees </li> <li>Vegetation </li> <li>Weed Science </li></ul><p> </p><h2><span class="mw-headline">References</span></h2><ul> <li>U.S. Geological Survey. National Biological Information Infrastructure: Botany </li></ul><p> </p><h2><span class="mw-headline">Further reading</span></h2><p> </p><h3><span class="mw-headline">Popular science style books on Botany</span></h3><ul> <li>Attenborough, David <em>The Private Life of Plants</em>, ISBN 0-563-37023-8 </li> <li>Bellamy, D <em>Bellamy on Botany</em>, ISBN 0-563-10666-2 an accessible and short introduction to various botanical subjects </li> <li>Capon, B: <em>Botany for Gardeners</em> ISBN 0-88192-655-8 </li> <li>Cohen, J. <em>How many people can the earth support?</em> W.W. Norton 1995 ISBN 0-393-31495-2 </li> <li>Halle, Francis. <em>In praise of plants</em> ISBN 0-88192-550-0. English translation of a poetic advocacy of plants. </li> <li>King, J. <em>Reaching for the sun: How plants work</em> ISBN 0-521-58738-7. A fluent introduction to how plants work. </li> <li>Pakenham, T: <em>Remarkable Trees of the World</em> (2002) ISBN 0-297-84300-1 </li> <li>Pakenham, T: <em>Meetings with Remarkable Trees</em> (1996) ISBN 0-297-83255-7 </li> <li>Pollan, M <em>The Botany of Desire: A Plant's-eye View of the World</em> Bloomsbury ISBN 0-7475-6300-4 Account of the co-evolution of plants and humans </li> <li>Thomas, B.A.: <em>The evolution of plants and flowers</em> St Martin's Press 1981 ISBN 0-312-27271-5 </li> <li>Walker, D. <em>Energy, Plants and Man</em> ISBN 1-870232-05-4 A presentation of the basic concepts of photosynthesis </li></ul><p> </p><h3><span class="mw-headline">Academic and Scientific books on Botany</span></h3><ul> <li>Buchanan, B.B., Gruissem, W & Jones, R.L. (2000) <em>Biochemistry & molecular biology of plants</em>. American Society of Plant Physiologists ISBN 0-943088-39-9 </li> <li>Crawford, R. M. M. (1989). <em>Studies in plant survival</em>. Blackwell. ISBN 0-632-01475-X </li> <li>Crawley, M. J. (1997). <em>Plant ecology</em>. Blackwell Scientific. ISBN 0-632-03639-7 </li> <li>Ennos, R and Sheffield, E <em>Plant life</em>, Blackwell Science, ISBN 0-86542-737-2 Introduction to plant biodiversity </li> <li>Fitter, A & Hay, R <em>Environmental physiology of plants</em> 3rd edition Sept 2001 Harcourt Publishers, Academic Press ISBN 0-12-257766-3 </li> <li>Lambers, H., Chapin, F.S. III and Pons, T.L. 1998. Plant Physiological Ecology. Springer-Verlag, New York. ISBN 0-387-98326-0 </li> <li>Lawlor, D.W. (2000) <em>Photosynthesis</em> BIOS ISBN 1-85996-157-6 </li> <li>Matthews, R. E. F. <em>Fundamentals of plant virology</em> Academic Press,1992. </li> <li>Mauseth, J.D.: <em>Botany : an introduction to plant biology</em>. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, ISBN 0-7637-2134-4, A first year undergraduate level textbook </li> <li>Morton, A.G. (1981). <em>History of Botanical Science.</em>Academic Press, London. ISBN 0-12-508380-7 (hardback) ISBN 0-12-508382-3 (paperback) </li> <li>Raven, P.H, Evert R.H and Eichhorn, S.E: <em>Biology of Plants</em>, Freeman. ISBN 1-57259-041-6, A first year undergraduate level textbook </li> <li>Richards, P. W. (1996). <em>The tropical rainforest</em>. 2nd ed. C.U.P. (Pbk) ISBN 0-521-42194-2 £32.50 </li> <li>Ridge, I. (2002) <em>Plants</em> Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-925548-2 </li> <li>Salisbury, FB and Ross, CW: <em>Plant physiology</em> Wadsworth publishing company ISBN 0-534-15162-0 </li> <li>Stace, C. A. <em>A new flora of the British Isles</em>. 2nd ed. C.U.P.,1997. ISBN 0-521-58935-5 </li> <li>Strange, R. L. <em>Introduction to plant pathology</em>. Wiley-VCH, 2003. ISBN 0-470-84973-8 </li> <li>Taiz, L. & Zeiger, E. (1998). <em>Plant physiology</em>. 3rd ed. August 2002 Sinauer Associates. ISBN 0-87893-823-0 </li> <li>Walter, H. (1985). <em>Vegetation of the earth</em>. 3rd rev. ed. Springer. </li> <li>Willis, K (2002) <em>The evolution of plants</em> Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-850065-3 £22-99 </li></ul><p><br /></p>
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