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<p>&nbsp;</p>                        <div idh2><span class="kbektt12951mw-headline" style=>History</span></h2><p>&nbsp;</p><h3><span class="overflow:auto;height:1px;mw-headline">[http:Origin of the term</span></wwwh3><p>The term &quot;metagenomics&quot; was first used by Jo Handelsman and others in the University of Wisconsin Department of Plant Pathology, and first appeared in publication in 1998.fecaltransfusionfoundation.org/anyboard9<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Handelsman1998_1-0">[2]</webmastersup> The term <strong>metagenome</postsstrong> referenced the idea that a collection of genes sequenced from the environment could be analyzed in way analogous to the study of a single genome. The exploding interest in environmental genetics, along with the buzzword-like nature of the term, has resulted in the broader use of <strong>metagenomics</5strong> to describe any sequencing of genetic material from environmental (i.html buy ambien][http://wwwe.fecaltransfusionfoundationuncultured) samples, even work that focuses on one organism or gene.org/anyboard9/webmaster/posts/6Recently, Kevin Chen and Lior Pachter (researchers at the University of California, Berkeley) defined metagenomics as &quot;the application of modern genomics techniques to the study of communities of microbial organisms directly in their natural environments, bypassing the need for isolation and lab cultivation of individual species.html buy adipex&quot; <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Chen2005_2-0">[3][http:</sup></www.fecaltransfusionfoundation.orgp><p>&nbsp;</anyboard9/webmaster/posts/7.html buy xenical]p>[http:<h3><span class="mw-headline">Environmental gene surveys</span></wwwh3><p>Conventional sequencing begins with a culture of identical cells as a source of DNA. However, early metagenomic studies revealed that there are probably large groups of microorganisms in many environments that cannot be cultured and thus cannot be sequenced.fecaltransfusionfoundationThese early studies focused on 16S ribosomal RNA sequences which are relatively short, often conserved within a species, and generally different between species.orgMany 16S rRNA sequences have been found which do not belong to any known cultured species, indicating that there are numerous non-isolated organisms out there.</anyboard9/webmaster/posts/8.html buy carisoprodol]p>[http://www<p>Early molecular work in the field was conducted by Norman R.fecaltransfusionfoundationPace and colleagues, who used PCR to explore the diversity of ribosomal RNA sequences.org/anyboard9/webmaster/posts<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Lane1985_3-0">[4]</9sup> The insights gained from these breakthrough studies led Pace to propose the idea of cloning DNA directly from environmental samples as early as 1985.html buy hydrocodone<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Pace1985_4-0">[5][http:</sup> This led to the first report of isolating and cloning bulk DNA from an environmental sample, published by Pace and colleagues in 1991 <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Pace1991_5-0">[6]</www.appli.se/rebecca/anyboard/myboard/posts/51sup> while Pace was in the Department of Biology at Indiana University.html buy ambien][http://wwwConsiderable efforts ensured that these were not PCR false positives and supported the existence of a complex community of unexplored species.appliAlthough this methodology was limited to exploring highly conserved, non-protein coding genes, it did support early microbial morphology-based observations that diversity was far more complex than was known by culturing methods.se</rebecca/anyboard/myboard/posts/52.html buy adipex]p><p>Soon after that, Healy reported the metagenomic isolation of functional genes from &quot;zoolibraries&quot; constructed from a complex culture 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carisoprodol<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Beja2000_8-0">[9][http:</sup></www.appli.sep><p>&nbsp;</rebecca/anyboard/myboard/posts/55.html buy hydrocodone]p>[http:<h3><span class="mw-headline">Shotgun metagenomics</span></wwwh3><p>Advances in bioinformatics, refinements of DNA amplification, and proliferation of computational power have greatly aided the analysis of DNA sequences recovered from environmental samples.appliThese advances have enabled the adaptation of shotgun sequencing to metagenomic samples.se/rebecca/anyboard/myboard/posts/56The approach, used to sequence many cultured microorganisms as well as the human genome, randomly shears DNA, sequences many short sequences, and reconstructs them into a consensus sequence.html free ringtones][http://wwwIn 2002, Mya Breitbart, Forest Rohwer, and colleagues used environmental shotgun sequencing to show that 200 liters of seawater contains over 5000 different viruses.appli.se<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Breitbart2002_9-0">[10]</rebecca/anyboard/myboard/posts/57sup> Subsequent studies showed that there are &gt;1000 viral species in human stool and possibly a million different viruses per kilogram of marine sediment, including many bacteriophages.html nextel ringtones][http://wwwEssentially all of the viruses in these studies were new species.appliA 2004 metagenomic study of the Sargasso Sea found DNA from nearly 2000 different species including 148 types of bacteria never seen before.se<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Venter2004_10-0">[11]</rebeccasup></anyboard/myboard/posts/58p><p>Also in 2004, Gene Tyson, Jill Banfield, and colleagues at the University of California, Berkeley and the Joint Genome Institute sequenced DNA extracted from an acid mine drainage system.html free nokia ringtones<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Tyson2004_11-0">[12][http:<//wwwsup> This effort resulted in the complete, or nearly complete, genomes for a handful of bacteria and archaea that had previously resisted attempts to culture them.appliIt was now possible to study entire genomes without the biases associated with laboratory cultures.se/rebecca/anyboard/myboard/posts/59.html verizon ringtones<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Hugenholz2002_12-0">[13]</sup></p><p>In 2006 Robert Edwards, Forest Rohwer, and colleagues at San Diego State University published the first sequences of environmental samples generated with so-called next generation sequencing, in this case chip based pyrosequencing developed by 454 Life Sciences. <sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Edwards2006_13-0">[http:14]<//wwwsup> This technique for sequencing the DNA generates shorter fragments than the conventional techniques, however this limitation is compensated for by the very large number of sequences generated.appliIn addition, this technique does not require cloning the DNA before sequencing, removing one of the main biases in metagenomics.se</rebecca/anyboard/myboard/posts/60p><p>In 2007, 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class="mw-headline">Microbial Diversity</span></wwwh2><p>Much of the interest in metagenomics comes from the discovery that the vast majority of microorganisms had previously gone unnoticed.appliTraditional microbiological methods relied upon laboratory cultures of organisms.se/rebecca/anyboard/myboard/posts/63Surveys of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes taken directly from the environment revealed that cultivation based methods find less than 1% of the bacteria and archaea species in a sample.html cingular ringtones<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Hugenholz1998_0-1">[1]</sup></p><p>&nbsp;</p>[http:<h2><span class="mw-headline">Gene Surveys</span></wwwh2><p>Shotgun sequencing and screens of clone libraries reveal genes present in environmental samples.appliThis provides information both on which organisms are present and what metabolic processes are possible in the community.se/rebecca/anyboard/myboard/posts/64This can be helpful in understanding the ecology of a community, particularly if multiple samples are compared to each other.html sprint ringtones]<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Allen2005_16-0">[http:17]</sup></www.appli.sep><p>&nbsp;</rebeccap><h2><span class="mw-headline">Environmental Genomes</anyboardspan></myboard/posts/65h2><p>Shotgun metagenomics also is capable of sequencing nearly complete microbial genomes directly from the environment.html polyphonic ringtones<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-Tyson2004_11-1">[12][http:<//wwwsup> Because the collection of DNA from an environment is largely uncontrolled, the most abundant organisms types in a sample are most highly represented in the resulting sequence data. To achieve the high coverage needed to fully resolve the genomes of underrepresented community members, large samples, often prohibitively so, are needed. On the other hand, the random nature of shotgun sequencing ensures that many of these organisms will be represented by at least some small sequence segments.appliDue to the limitations of microbial isolation methods, the vast majority of these organisms would go unnoticed using traditional culturing techniques.se</rebeccap><p>&nbsp;</anyboard/myboard/posts/66.html cell phone wallpapers]p>[http:<h2><span class="mw-headline">Community metabolism</span></wwwh2><p>Many bacterial communities show significant division of labor in metabolism.appliWaste products of some organisms are metabolites for others.se/rebecca/anyboard/myboard/posts/67Working together they turn raw resources into fully metabolized waste. Using comparative gene studies and expression experiments with microarrays or proteomics researchers can piece together a metabolic network that goes beyond species boundaries.html prepaid cell phones][http://wwwSuch studies require detailed knowledge about which versions of which proteins are coded by which species and even by which strains of which species.appliTherefore, community genomic information is another fundamental part (as metabolomics or proteomics) to be able to estimate how metabolites are possibly transferred and transformed through a community.se</rebecca/anyboard/myboardp><p>&nbsp;</posts/68.html mp3 ringtones]p>[http:<h2><span class="mw-headline">References</span></www.appli.se/rebecca/anyboard/myboard/posts/69.html cell phone ringtones]h2>[http:<div class="references-small"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Hugenholz1998-0">^ <sup><em><strong>a</strong></www.appli.seem></rebecca/anyboard/myboardsup> <sup><em><strong>b</postsstrong></em></70sup> <cite style="FONT-STYLE: normal">Hugenholz, P; Goebel BM, Pace NR (1998).html download free ringtones][http://www&quot;Impact of culture-independent studies on the emerging phylogenetic view of bacterial diversity&quot;.appli<em>J.seBacteriol</rebecca/anyboard/myboard/postsem> <strong>180</71.html t-mobile ringtones][httpstrong>://www4765&ndash;4774.appliPMID 9733676.se</rebecca/anyboard/myboard/posts/72cite><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&amp;rft.html nokia ringtones][http://wwwgenre=article&amp;rft.appliatitle=Impact+of+culture-independent+studies+on+the+emerging+phylogenetic+view+of+bacterial+diversity&amp;rft.se/rebecca/anyboard/myboard/posts/73jtitle=J.html free cingular ringtones][http://www+Bacteriol&amp;rft.applidate=1998&amp;rft.se/rebecca/anyboard/myboard/posts/74volume=180&amp;rft.html Justin Timberlake concert tickets][httpaulast=Hugenholz&amp;rft.aufirst=P&amp;rft.pages=4765%E2%80%934774&amp;rft_id=info:pmid//www9733676&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pubmedcentral.nih.appligov%2Farticlerender.sefcgi%3Ftool%3Dpubmed%26pubmedid%3D9733676"><span style="DISPLAY: none">&nbsp;</rebeccaspan></anyboardspan> </myboard/posts/75.html Shakira concert tickets]li>[http <li id="cite_note-Handelsman1998-1"><strong>^</strong> <cite style="FONT-STYLE://wwwnormal">Handelsman, J; 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